Principles of Plant Genetics and Breeding

property is a major one in plant breeding in developed
countries, with consequences for crop improvement in
developing countries.
Brief overview of plant breeding in
developing counties
Whereas agricultural research in developed countries is
generally well organized and well funded, formal agricultural
research in most developing countries is limited
and underfunded. Typically, plant breeding research in
these countries is conducted primarily in the public
domain at national agricultural research stations and
the local universities. Further, the emphasis of breeding
is on improving a few of the major food and cash
crops of local importance. Many farmers use landraces
to grow many of the staple crops. Improved cultivars are
obtained through plant introductions and the limited
efforts of local research stations.
In terms of human capital, developing countries often
depend on developed countries for the training of high
level (graduate) researchers (e.g., plant breeders). Plant
breeders in developing countries depend largely on conventional
breeding technologies, since the exorbitant
cost of some of the modern technologies (e.g., genetic
engineering) prohibits their adoption. Cultivars are
developed so that the farmer can maintain them, that is,
seed can be saved for planting the next season’s crop
from the current season’s harvest. Commercial seed
companies are non-existent in most developing countries.
It should be pointed out that the relatively more
technologically advanced third world countries have
very well funded plant breeding programs, which have
produced outstanding results. Such countries include
India, China, Brazil, and South Africa.
Plant breeding efforts in
sub-Saharan Africa
One of the regions of the world that frequently experiences
food deficits and famines is sub-Saharan Africa.
This region also has some of the most heterogeneous
agroecological conditions, coupled with some of the
most unstable political systems. Research indicates that
some progress has been made in the development of
research infrastructure, including the development of
human capital and research capabilities. There were
about 2,000 full-time equivalent researchers in 1961
and about 9,000 in 1991, with over 90% of them being
INTERNATIONAL PLANT BREEDING EFFORTS 451
Africans. Unfortunately, research expenditure over the
same period declined dramatically. In 1991, agricultural
research spending averaged about 0.73% of gross
domestic product with donor funding for agricultural
research accounting for about 43% of total expenditures.
It should be pointed out that there is marked variability
in these statistics. For example, whereas Nigeria
received only 6% of its agricultural research funding from
donors, countries such as Senegal and Zambia received
more than 60% of their funds from donor sources.
An estimated 40% of the budget of the International
Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) is disbursed to
efforts in Africa.
The most important crops produced in developing
countries by acreage are maize, sorghum/millet, and
root and tuber crops. The increase in production of
major crops from 1971 to 1997 averaged more than
2.0%. Yield increase from crop improvement accounted
for 70% of the increase in wheat production. Compared
to Asia and Latin America, African research emphasis is
on crop management against the complex agroecological
conditions that prevail, rather than the improvement
of maize. Input from the IARCs (through CIMMYT
and IITA – see Table 25.1 for a list of the centers and
their names in full) is very strong for maize. Cultivar
releases include open-pollinated varieties (OPV) and
hybrids, the latter being more common in East and
South Africa, while OPVs and local cultivars dominate
production in West and Central Africa. Between 1981
and 1990, cultivars of maize used in these regions
included about 62% OPVs and 38% hybrids. The yield
increase of hybrids over local varieties averages about
40%. Yield gain from OPVs is about 14–25% over local
varieties.
Sorghum and millet are the second and third most
important cereal crops, respectively, in Africa. They
have the dubious title of “poor man’s crops”. Crop
improvement efforts have been significantly supported
by ICRISAT and the International Sorghum and
Millet Collaborative Research Support Program
(INTSORMIL-CRSP). Other success stories include
hybrid sorghum in Sudan, semidwarf rice for irrigated
production in West Africa, and disease-resistant potatoes
in East and Central Africa.
On the whole, the National Agricultural Research
Stations, with support from the IARCs, have made
some progress in getting improved cultivars into agricultural
production. However, a report in 1991 by
the Special Program for African Agricultural Research
(SPAAR) suggests that in order for agricultural research
to remain a catalyst for modernizing African agriculture,