Pan-Pacific Conference XXXIV. Designing New Business Models in Developing Economies

implications for both the individuals and
organisations affected by the phenomenon to be
very similar. The literature highlighted that
aggression and bullying in the workplace takes on
many forms and further occurs on many levels
within organisations.
“…take the form of overt physical or verbal
assaults. Common types of overt behaviour
are: constant criticism, shouting and verbal
abuse, and persistent picking on a victim”
(Harthill, 2008).
“… can also take on more subtle forms,
such as removing responsibilities and
replacing them with trivial tasks,
withholding information, and blocking
promotions “ (Harthill, 2008).
“The majority of research has focused on
downwards bullying (as perpetrated by
managers against subordinates); to a lesser
extent on horizontal bullying (one colleague
bullying another); and more recently on
upwards bullying (a subordinate bullying a
person in a managerial position). Thus,
bullying can occur within all levels of an
organisation” (Branch, Ramsey & Barker,
2012).
Through the meta-synthesis method, four themes
developed from the literature:
1. Work related attributes of the phenomenon.
2. Negative perceptions of organisational culture
and management.
3. Individual identity and consequences for the
organisation and individuals.
4. Cost implications: individuals, organisations,
society.
First, in the findings it became evident that work
related aggression and bullying attributes
underpinned much of the studies. It emerged from
the literature that these type of workplace
aggression and bulling included work overload,
unrealistic and unreasonable targets and deadlines,
or lowering of work responsibilities (Vega &
Comer, 2005; Harthill, 2008; Matthiesen &
Einarsen, 2010; Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Baillien,
Neyens & De Witt, 2013; Van der Merwe, Myburgh
& Poggenpoel, 2015). Additionally, the literature
reported bullying to include interpersonal pressure,
exclusion and withholding of information, verbal
and non-verbal abuse (Vega & Comer, 2005;
Bimenyimana, Poggenpoel, Myburgh & van
Niekerk, 2006; Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2010;
Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Samnani, Singh &
Ezzedeen, 2013; Ousey, Warelow, Steve & Steve,
2014; Van der Merwe, Myburgh & Poggenpoel,
2015)
Second, the literature further indicated negative
perceptions of organisational culture and
management relating to the attributions of
aggression and bullying in the workplace. Of
concern is the demeaning of individuals in the
workplace related to positional power and authority.
Evidence in the literature included; the blocking of
promotions, undermining, non- or limited
communication and aggressive management styles
(Vega & Comer, 2005; Matthiesen & Einarsen,
2010; Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Cowen, 2013;
Baillien, Neyens & De Witt, 2013; Samnani, Singh
& Ezzedeen, 2013). Moreover, Samnani, Singh and
Ezzedeen (2013) posits targets to experience the
organisation as the bully and the felt that the
organisational culture was the motivation for
aggression.
Third, considering the consequences of aggression
and bullying in the workplace, literature revealed
individual identity and consequences for the
organisation and individuals. Since aggression and
bullying in the workplace are often covert and
subtle, it involves important challenges for
individual (Samnani, Singh & Ezzedeen, 2013). The
consequences of the phenomenon directly impacts
individuals’ identity through the loss of confidence
and decrease in self-worth (Vega & Comer, 2005;
Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2010; Bartlett & Bartlett,
2011; Ousey, Warelow, Steve & Steve, 2014). The
perception of inferiority then links directly to
uncertainty, hopelessness and helplessness leading
to crumbling relationships, poor performace and
withdrawal (Bimenyimana, Poggenpoel, Myburgh
& van Niekerk, 2006; Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2010;
Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Ramsay & Barker, 2012;
Baillien, Neyens & De Witt, 2013; Van der Merwe,
Myburgh & Poggenpoel, 2015). Further highlighted
in the literature is that the experience of loss of selfworth,
job satisfaction, stress and frustration often
impacts individuals’ physical and/or mental wellbeing
(Vega & Comer, 2005; Bartlett & Bartlett,
2011; Van der Merwe, Myburgh & Poggenpoel,
2015) . Similarly, the phenomenon entail serious
consequences for organisations. On the one hand,
organisations will have demoralized employers,
deterioration of workplace relationships causing an
unhealthy and toxic organizational culture and
environment (Vega & Comer, 2005; Samnani,
Singh and Ezzedeen, 2013). On the other hand
frustrated and overwhelmed employees causes high
turnover, resignations and loss in qualified
personnel (Vega & Comer, 2005; Harthill, 2008;
Cowen, 2013).
Fourth, in light of theme one, two and three, cost
implications for individuals, organisations and
society were presented. Cost implications directly
linked to individuals include the possible loss of
income due to resignation and cutting back at work
hours. Also, higher medical expenses due to
increased physical and mental health issues. Lastly,
in worst-case scenarios, legal expenses due to
divorce and court cases for unfair dismissal and
performance evaluations (Vega &Comer, 2005;
Harthill, 2008; Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Ramsay &
barker, 2012; Cowen, 2013; Ousey, Warelow, Steve
& Steve, 2014). Secondly, focusing on the
consequences of aggression and bullying in the
workplace on organisations, the biggest factors were
the loss of productivity, extra training, legal costs,
absenteeism and the loss of highly qualified
employees (Vega &Comer, 2005; Matthiesen &
Einarsen, 2010; Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Harthill,
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