Interrogations-and-Confessions-Handbook

80 A Psychology of Interrogations and Confessions
typed transcript and audiotape were available, the next stage entailed listening
to the audiotape in order to check each transcript, inserting any alterations
or amendments that were required, and each individual interview tape was
divided into five minute sections. Occasionally, some police questioning was so
verbose that it extended over a considerable number of pages, and in these
cases the five minute marker was inserted at a natural pause. Thus, by reading
the available evidence, listening to the tape and correcting the transcript,
it was possible to acquire a valuable insight into the history, nature and circumstances
of each case. The final product of interview tactics and response
variables was then subjected to a number of statistical tests (principally factor
analysis), which identified the dominant ‘clusters’ of tactics that formed
identifiable factors.
The approach undertaken for this study was designed to discriminate
amongst the range of possible techniques or tactics, including the extent of
their use (frequency), timing and degree of use (intensity) as well as the relevant
context (i.e. the accompanying tactics and suspects’ reactions). Given the
crucial importance of our categorization of the ‘interview tactics’ and ‘suspect
responses’ to the development of the PIAF we intend to outline these areas in
some depth (Pearse, 1997; Pearse & Gudjonsson, 1999).
INTERVIEW TACTICS
A number of typologies have been provided in the literature to help identify
and categorize the range of possible interviewing tactics. Kalbfleisch (1994) for
example, presents a 15-part typology, whilst Kassin and McNall (1991) provide
a two-tier ‘maximization’ and ‘minimization’ approach (although this was
specifically designed to interpret the Inbau–Reid–Buckley (1986) Model. A separate
typology is presented here, based on an assessment by the first author
that identified a total of 39 tactic variables. This typology is composed of three
distinct categories.
1. Delivery.
2. Maximization.
3. Manipulation.
Delivery
This category concerns the type of question asked and ‘how’ the questions are
put (i.e. the manner in which they are delivered or the context of that delivery).
A total of 12 variables contributed to this category. This research confined the
categorization of type of question to three: open, closed or leading. An open
question is often an invitation for the suspect to provide his account of events
(‘Tell us what you were doing then, today?’). A closed question is one that can
be answered in a few words (‘How did you get there, did you walk or cycle?’).
A leading question is one that is ‘loaded’ or implies the answer the interviewer