Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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we hunt, are truly at the mercy of our rapidly changing environment. (Apangalook, 2 March 2007) The last message from indigenous records is that local observations could be a valuable component of any instrumental observation network built for IPY 2007– 2008 and beyond. Many hunters in small Alaskan villages are trained to keep daily weather logs and are very familiar with the practices of instrumental observation and forecasting. Also, their daily records can be matched with historical instrumental data from the same areas that sometimes go back to the years of the First IPY of 1882– 1883 (Wood and Overland 2006), as well as with the readings of today’s weather stations and ice satellite imagery. Such cross-reference with the long-term instrumental series would create the needed comparative context to indigenous observations and would help introduce analytical scholarly tools to the analysis of indigenous data. Arctic residents’ observations are too precious a record to be discounted as “anecdotal evidence” in today’s search for the documentation and explanation of environmental change. Besides, local observations in places like Gambell, with the now-shortened ice season and thinned fi rst-year ice, may offer a valuable insight into the future status of the Arctic sea ice of many climate models. Those models predict the shrinking, thinning, and eventual loss of multi-year ice over almost the entire Arctic Ocean by the middle of this century (Bancroft, 2007; Johannessen et al., 2004:336– 338; Overland, 2007; Richter-Menge et al., 2006). Arctic residents’ integrative vision of their environment can be invaluable to our understanding of this new Arctic system in the decades to come. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper is a tribute to the long-term partnership with local experts in the documentation of their observations of sea ice and climate change in the Bering Strait region. Collaboration with Herbert Anungazuk, Leonard Apangalook Sr., George Noongwook, Chester Noongwook, Conrad Oozeva, Willis Walunga, Winton Weyapuk Jr., and others turned into the bonds of friendship and gained new momentum under the SIKU project in 2006– 2008. I am grateful to Leonard Apangalook Sr.; also to Hiroko Ikuta, Chester Noongwook, and G. Carleton Ray, who shared their photos for illustrations to this paper. My colleagues Ernest S. Burch Jr., Aron Crowell, William Fitzhugh, Molly Lee, G. Carleton Ray, Cara Seitchek, Dennis Stanford, and Kevin Wood offered helpful comments to the fi rst drafts of this paper. I thank them all. “THE WAY WE SEE IT COMING”: INDIGENOUS OBSERVATIONS 139 NOTES 1. Sophus Tromholt’s photographs taken in 1882– 1883 have been displayed at the “Indigenous Opening” of IPY 2007– 2008 and used in a special trilingual calendar produced for the event. See http://www.ip-py.org/ news_cms/2007/january/tromholdt_exhibit_at_the_opening_ ceremony/6 (accessed 30 March 2008). 2. Point no. 51 in Hazen’s instructions, “Observations and collections in the realms of zoology, botany, geology, &c.” (Ray, 1885:13; Greely, 1888:104). 3. The Barrow collections included “497 bird-skins, comprising about 50 species, and 177 sets of eggs; [. . .] a small collection of skins, skulls, and skeletons of mammals; 11 or 12 species of fi shes; a very few insects; and some marine and fresh-water invertebrates. The plants of the region were carefully collected. A considerable number of Eskimo vocabularies were obtained, together with a large collection of implements, clothing, &c” (Baird, 1885a:15). Turner’s collections from Labrador were described as “[. . .] of birds, 1,800 specimens; eggs, 1,800 specimens; fi shes, 1,000 specimens; mammals, 200 specimens; ethnological, 600 artifacts; plants, a great number; insects, over 200,000; geological specimens, a great variety; Eskimo linguistics, over 500 pages of manuscript, embracing thousands of words and over 800 sentences” (Baird, 1885b:17). 4. In fact, there are 1,068 ethnological objects, according to today’s electronic catalog, with Lt. P. Ray recorded as donor; plus 6 objects donated by Capt. Herendeen, another member of the Barrow mission. 5. Barrow team also conducted a census of the residents of Barrow, with 137 names of men, women, and children (Ray, 1885:49); that makes it one of the earliest samples of personal Inuit names from Arctic Alaska. 6. See reviews of several individual documentation projects on indigenous observations in Krupnik and Jolly, 2002; also Herlander and Mustonen, 2004; Huntington and Fox, 2005. 7. One of such projects, ELOKA (Exchange for Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic, IPY # 187) works “to provide data management tools and appropriate means of recording, preserving, and sharing data and information” from Arctic communities— See http:// nsidc.org/eloka/ (accessed 30 March 2008). 8. This pattern has been consistently reported by indigenous observers across the Arctic area— see Gearheard et al., 2006; Laidler, 2006; Laidler and Elee, 2006; Laidler and Ikummaq, 2008; McDonald et al., 1997; Metcalf and Krupnik, 2003. 9. See similar conclusions from other projects in the documentation of indigenous knowledge on sea ice change (Gearheard et al., 2006; Laidler, 2006; Laidler and Elee, 2006; Norton, 2002). Murdoch’s work in Barrow even inspired a special IPY 2007– 2008 project aimed at replicating his ethnological collections by today’s specimens (Jensen, 2005) LITERATURE CITED ACIA. 2005. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Allison, I., M. Béland, K. Alverson, R. Bell, D. Carlson, K. Darnell, C. Ellis-Evans, E. Fahrbach, E. Fanta, Y. Fujii, G. Glasser, L. Goldfarb, G. Hovelsrud, J. Huber, V. Kotlyakov, I. Krupnik, J. Lopez- Martinez, T. Mohr, D. Qin, V. Rachold, C. Rapley, O. Rogne, E. Sarukhanian, C. Summerhayes, and C. Xiao. 2007. The Scope of Science for the International Polar Year 2007– 2008. World Meteorological Organization, Technical Documents 1364. Geneva. Aporta, C., and E. Higgs. 2005. Satellite Culture: Global Positioning Systems, Inuit Wayfi nding, and the Need for a New Account of Technology. Current Anthropology, 46(5): 729– 753.
140 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUPNIK Baird, S. F. 1885a. Report of Professor Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for 1883. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year 1883. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Offi ce. ———. 1885b. Report of Professor Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for 1884. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year 1884. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Offi ce. Bancroft, D. 2007. Ice in the Canadian Arctic— Canadian Ice Service (CIS) Perspective on the Future. Paper presented at the Symposium “Impact of an Ice-Diminishing Arctic on Naval and Maritime Operations,” Washington, D.C., 10 July. http://www .orbit .nesdis .noaa .gov/ star/ IceSymposiumProgram .php (accessed 3 September 2007). Barr, William. 1985. The Expeditions of the First International Polar Year, 1882– 83. The Arctic Institute of North America, Technical Paper 29. Calgary, Alberta, Canada: University of Calgary. Bates, Peter. 2007. Inuit and Scientifi c Philosophies about Planning, Prediction, and Uncertainty. Arctic Anthropology, 44(2):87– 100. Berkes, F. 1999. Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management. London: Taylor and Francis. Bielawski, E. 1992. Inuit Indigenous Knowledge and Science in the Arctic. Northern Perspectives, 20(1). http://www .carc .org/ pubs/ v20no1/ index .html, (accessed 30 March 2008). Boas, F. 1888. “The Central Eskimo.” In Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology for the Years 1884– 1885, pp. 399– 669. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Offi ce. (Second edition, 1964, University of Nebraska Press.) Bogoslovskaya, L. S. 2003. “The Bowhead Whale of Chukotka: Integration of Scientifi c and Traditional Knowledge.” In Indigenous Ways to the Present: Native Whaling in the Western Arctic, ed. A. P. Mc- Cartney, pp. 209– 254. Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Studies in Whaling 6, Occasional Publications 54. Edmonton: Canadian Circumpolar Institute, University of Alberta. Bunge, A. 1895. “Opisanie puteshestviia k ustiu r. Leny 1881– 1884” [Description of the Voyage to the Mouth of the Lena River, 1881– 1884]. In Trudy Russkoi Poliarnoi stantsii na ust’ie Leny, ed. A. Tillo, vol. 1, appendix 1, pp. 1– 96. St. Petersburg: Russian Geographical Society. Burch, Ernest S., Jr. 2009. “Smithsonian Contributions to Alaskan Ethnography: The IPY Expedition to Barrow, 1881– 1883.” In Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang, and S. E. Miller, pp. 89– 98. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. Cole, D., and L. Müller-Wille. 1984. Franz Boas’ Expedition to Baffi n Island, 1883– 1884. Études/Inuit/Studies, 8(1):37– 63. Crowell, A. L., and E. Oozevaseuk. 2006. The St. Lawrence Island Famine and Epidemic, 1878– 1880: A Yupik Narrative in Cultural and Historical Context. Arctic Anthropology, 43(1):1– 19. Crowell, Aron L. 2009. “The Art of Iñupiaq Whaling: Elders’ Interpretations of International Polar Year Ethnological Collections.” In Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang, and S. E. Miller, pp. 99– 114. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. Doty, W. F. 1900. Log Book, St. Lawrence Island. Ninth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska 1899. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Offi ce. Fleming, James R., and Cara Seitchek. 2009. “Advancing Polar Research and Communicating Its Wonders: Quests, Questions, and Capabilities of Weather and Climate Studies in International Polar Years.” In Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang, and S. E. Miller, pp. 1– 12. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. Fitzhugh, William. 1988a. “Introduction to the 1987 Edition.” In Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition, by John Murdoch. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ———. 1988b. “Baird’s Naturalists: Smithsonian Collectors in Alaska.” In Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska, ed. W. W. Fitzhugh and A. Crowell, pp. 89– 96. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ———. 2002. “Origins of Museum Anthropology at the Smithsonian and Beyond.” In Anthropology, History, and American Indians: Essays in Honor of William Curtis Sturtevant, ed. W. L. Merrill and I. Goddard, pp. 179– 200. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, No. 44. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ———. 2009. “‘Of No Ordinary Importance’: Reversing Polarities in Smithsonian Arctic Studies.” In Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang, and S. E. Miller, pp. 61– 78. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. Ford, J., T. Pierce, B. Smit, J. Wandel, M. Allurut, K. Shappa, H. Ittusujurat, and K. Qrunnut. 2007. Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change in the Arctic: The Case of Nunavut. Arctic, 60(2): 150– 166. Gearheard, S., W. Matumeak, I. Angutikjuaq, J. Maslanik, H. P. Huntington, J. Leavitt, D. Matumeak Kagak, G. Tigullaraq, and R. G. Barry. 2006. “It’s Not That Simple”: A Collaborative Comparison of Sea Ice Environments, Their Uses, Observed Changes, and Adaptations in Barrow, Alaska, USA, and Clyde River, Nunavut, Canada. Ambio, 35(4): 203– 211. Grebmeier, J. M., J. E. Overland, S. E. Moore, E. V. Farley, E. C. Carmack, L. W. Cooper, K. E. Frey, J. H. Helle, F. A. McLaughlin, and S. L. McNutt. 2006. A Major Ecosystem Shift in the Northern Bering Sea. Science, 311: 1461– 1464. Greely, A. W. 1888. Report on the Proceedings of the United States Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land. U.S. House of Representatives, 49th Congress, 1st Session, Misc. Document No. 393. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Offi ce. Herlander, Elina, and Tero Mustonen, eds. 2004. “Snowscapes, Dreamscapes.” Snowchange Book on Community Voices of Change Study Materials 12. Tampere, Finland: Tampere Polytechnic Publications. Hovelsrud, G., and I. Krupnik. 2006. IPY 2007– 08 and Social/Human Sciences: An Update. Arctic, 59(3): 341– 348. Huntington, H. P., ed. 2000. Impact of Changes in Sea Ice and Other Environmental Parameters in the Arctic. Report of the Marine Mammal Commission Workshop. Girdwood, Alaska, 15– 17 February 2000. Bethesda, Md.: Marine Mammal Commission. Huntington, H. P., T. Callaghan, S. Fox, and I. Krupnik. 2004. Matching Traditional and Scientifi c Observations to Detect Environmental Change: A Discussion on Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems. Ambio, 33(7): 18– 23. Huntington, H. P., and S. Fox.. 2005. “The Changing Arctic: Indigenous Perspectives.” In Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, ed. C. Symon, L. Arris, and B. Heal, pp. 61– 98. New York: Cambridge University Press. International Council for Science. 2004. A Framework for the International Polar Year 2007– 2008. Produced by the ICSU IPY 2007– 2008 Planning Group. http://www .icsu .org/ Gestion/ img/ ICSU_DOC_DOWNLOAD/ 562_DD_FILE_IPY_web_version .pdf (accessed 30 March 2008). Jensen, A. 2005. Northern Material Culture through International Polar Year Collections, Then and Now: In the Footsteps of Murdoch and Turner. http://www .uaf .edu/ anthro/ iassa/ ipyjensen .htm (accessed 3 September 2007). Johannessen, O. M., L. Bengtsson, M. W. Miles, S. I. Kuzmina, V. A. Semenov, G. A. Alekseev, A. P. Nagurnyi, V. F. Zakharov, L. B.
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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Page 132 and 133: From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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Page 144: the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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Page 198 and 199: Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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206 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINS
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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272 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNT
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286 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUET
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300 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEAL
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320 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEB
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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370 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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372 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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374 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALK
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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