Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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e rapidly deployed to South America, Africa, and other points north. The sea ice runways used at McMurdo were limited to only part of the year and had to be rebuilt each season. Further, while clearly advantageous for aviation, the icy coast of Victoria Land proved diffi cult for ships to use and the shores were shallow. The 10,000-foot runway was never fi nished. Notably, however, the fi rst “wheels on dirt” landing of an aircraft in Antarctica took place here when a Navy VXE-6 squadron Otter landed with Sir Edmund Hillary onboard. He had just reached the South Pole in an overland tractor convoy. Marble Point is a weather station and helicopter refueling station today. In the 1980s, when the Chinese program was considering the site as a potential research station, the VXE-6 commander, Captain Brian Shumaker, had new stakes placed along the runway to assert continuing American presence there. It remains an American site today, and is, without question, the best place for a yearround airfi eld on the continent. It is a rocky promontory located 50 miles from McMurdo Station, and an adjacent land strip serves as a helicopter refueling station in support of U.S. Antarctic program research. Our survey of the Marble Point area revealed that an enormous engineering study had been conducted there in 1956– 1957 by the U.S. Navy. There were test trenches in the permafrost, test pads established with the sensors still in place, and detailed reports by engineers and scientists. In all, the studies encompassed geology, pedology, permafrost studies, seismic studies, hydrology, glaciology, sea ice and sea bed studies, and polar engineering. This material provides an unparalleled 50-year baseline for studying changes in the Antarctic environment and the effects of human impacts over time. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Archaeology offers unique opportunities for research on polar history. In addition to adding new substance to material culture remains and a greater focus on individuals, the documentation of in situ features is a necessary prerequisite for historic site preservation. The loss of sites in the Arctic due to climate change is an enormous problem and increased erosion along Arctic beaches and rivers is destroying thousands of years of Arctic prehistory and history. These regions have been little documented as compared with the lower latitudes. New highly perishable artifacts and human remains are melting out of glaciers around the world. FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNWAYS 59 The Andrée expedition study was conducted as a research project on the causes of the deaths of these explorers. As an immensely popular fi gure in Nordic history, hundreds of visitors visit the campsite every year, made even more accessible by global warming. Management of sites like this will require greater protection, but at the same time we must help facilitate visitors’ needs through marked pathways, signs, and better information. The second project, at East Base, was a cleanup and management effort that also served to document and protect the site. This kind of project should continue to be international in scope. In 1992, John Splettstoesser published an article in Nature regarding the melting of the Northeast glacier at East Base as evidence of rapid global warming (Splettstoesser, 1992). One of the principal reasons Stonington Island has been chosen as a base in 1940 was that the glacier connected the island to the peninsula. Today the glacial bridge has vanished and the island is separated by a wide gap of open water. The bridge had been there as late as the 1970s. Human presence at places like Stonington Island has, in other words, inadvertently given us baseline observations for documenting rapid climate change effects. Finally, Marble Point, even as a small mapping effort, further reveals the indirect scientifi c value of former bases. This site is literally a climate-change data goldmine. The engineering baseline data from sites like this, collected for entirely unrelated reasons, are of great value for understanding human impacts in polar environments. Polar fl ight plays a major part in these three investigations. Andrée was the fi rst pioneer of polar fl ight. Byrd was at the forefront of polar aviation and in 1946– 1947, after World War II was also instrumental in Operation Highjump. Ronne mapped 450,000 square miles of Antarctica in 1947– 1948. Marble Point was the site of the fi rst dirt runway landing and still remains the largest land airfi eld ever conceived of in Antarctica. Aviation was at the core of mid-twentieth-century exploration and the transition from dog sleds to aircraft has left an amazing legacy of technology at both poles. The “old politics” of polar research, and the technological efforts put into them, are closely akin to those of international climate change research of today. The International Geophysical Year in 1957– 1958 was, after all, conducted during the heat of Cold War. The Arctic Ocean has, once again, drawn the close attention of the eight polar nations— the United States, Canada, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, Denmark/ Greenland— as well as all other nations highly dependent
60 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BROADBENT on gas and oil. The Antarctic, as international territory, is still a place where national presence is deemed critical. It would not be an exaggeration to state that the past is truly prelude to the most signifi cant issues of the modern era. To ignore this history is to fail to recognize why the polar regions have long played such an important part in the economic and political history of the western world. EPILOGUE Since the logistical costs of archaeological projects in the polar regions are so great, they are rarely possible to carry out. A potential model for achieving a more comprehensive approach to documentation and cleanup could be to use volunteers under expert supervision on regularly scheduled tourist vessels. This would provide meaningful experiences for the public, facilitate polar heritage management, and offer unique opportunities for the tourist industry. This idea is currently being discussed by a consortium of polar historians and archaeologists. The Smithsonian has several sites of interest that would be ideal places to begin. One is the old town of Barrow, site of U.S. efforts in the original IPY in 1881– 1883, and a second site is Fort Conger on Ellesmere Island, used in 1881 by the Greely Expedition LITERATURE CITED Andrée, S. A., Nils Strindberg, and Knut Fraenkel. 1930. Med Örnen mot polen. Sällskapet för antropologi och geografi . Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag. Black, Richard B. 1946a. Narrative of East Base, U.S. Antarctic Expedition, 1939– 1941, 27 Dec. 1960, Accession III-NNG-57, R 126, National Archives-CP. Washington, D.C. ———. 1946b. “Geographical Operations from East Base, United States Antarctic Service Expedition 1939– 1941,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 89: 4– 12. Broadbent, Noel D. 1992. Project East Base: Preserving Research History in Antarctica. NSF Directions, 5: 1– 2. ———. 1994. An Archaeological Survey of Marble Point, Antarctica. Antarctic Journal of the United States, 29: 3– 6. ———. 1998. Report on a preliminary archaeological investigation of the Andrée expedition camp on White Island, Spitsbergen, 1998. “Lance” Expedition of the Swedish Program for Social Science Research in the Polar Regions, 16– 24 August 1998. Manuscript, Department of Archaeology, University of Umeå, Sweden. ———. 2000a. Archaeological Fieldwork at Andréenäset, Vitön, Spitsbergen— A Preliminary Report. Swedartic 2000, pp. 62– 64. Stockholm: Swedish Polar Research Secretariat. ———. 2000b. Expedition Vitön i Andrées spår. Populär arkeologi nr. 4, 2000: 19– 22. Broadbent, Noel D., and Johan Olofsson. 2001. Archaeological Investigations of the S. A. Andrée Site, White Island, Svalbard 1998 and 2000. UMARK 23. Arkeologisk rapport. Institutionen för arkeologi och samiska studier. Umeå universitet, Sweden. Broadbent, Noel D., and Lisle, Rose. 2002. Historical Archaeology and the Byrd Legacy. The United States Antarctic Service Expedition, 1939– 31. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 2002, 110(2):237– 258. Capelotti, P. J. 1999. Virgohamna and the Archaeology of Failure. The Centennial of S. A. Andrée’s North Pole Expedition, ed. U. Wråkberg, pp. 30– 43. Stockholm: Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien. Darlington, Jennie, and J. McIlvaine. 1956. My Antarctic Honeymoon: A Year at the Bottom of the World. New York: Doubleday and Company. Devlin, T. M. ed. 1986. Textbook of Biochemistry with Chemical Correlations. Second edition. New York: Wiley. English, R. A. J. 1941. Preliminary Account of the United States Antarctic Expedition, 1939– 1941. Geographical Review, 31: 466– 478. Fynden på Vitön. Minnesutställning över S. A. Andrée, Nils Strindberg och Knut Fraenkel anordnad i Liljevalchs konsthall. 1931. Liljevalchs konsthall, katalog nr. 90. Stockholm. Hall, M., and S. Silliman, eds. 2006. Historical Archaeology. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell. Iijima, G. C. 1994. Our Most Remote Museum. Odyssey, 3: 41– 42. Lipps, J. H. 1976. The United States, “East Base,” Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctic Journal of the United States, 11: 215. ———. 1978. East Base, Stonington Island, Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctic Journal of the United States, 1978: 231– 232. Lithberg, Nils. 1930. “The Campsite on White Island and Its Equipment.” In Med Örnan mot polen, ed. S. A. Andrée, Nils Strindberg, and Knut Fraenkel, pp. 189– 227. Stockholm: Sällskapet för antropologi och geografi . Lundström, Nils. 1997. “Var position är ej synnerligen god . . . Andrée expeditionen i svart och vitt.” Stockholm: Carlssons Bokförlag. Orser, Charles E. 2004. Historical Archaeology. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education. Parfi t, Michael, and Robb Kendrick. 1993. Reclaiming a Lost Antarctic Base. National Geographic Magazine, 183: 110– 26. Personne, Mark. 2000. Andrée-expeditionens män dog troligen av botulism. Läkartidningen 97, 12: 1427– 1431. Ronne, Finn. 1949. Antarctic Conquest: The Story of the Ronne Expedition 1946– 1948. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. ———. 1950. Women in the Antarctic, or the Human Side of Scientifi c Expedition. Appalachia, 28: 1– 15. ———. 1979. Antarctica, My Destiny: A Personal History by the Last of the Great Polar Explorers. New York: Hastings House. South, Stanley. 1977. Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. Splettstoesser, John. 1992. Antarctic Global Warming? Nature, 355: 503. Spude, Catherine Holder, and Robert L. Spude. 1993. East Base Historic Monument, Stonington Island/Antarctic Peninsula: Part I: A Guide for Management; Part II: Description of the Cultural Resources and Recommendation, NPS D-187, National Park Service. Denver: United States Department of the Interior. Thomson, R., and F. Oldfi eld. 1986. Environmental Magnetism. London: Allen and Unwin. Wade, F. A. 1945. An Introduction to the Symposium on Scientifi c Results of the United States Antarctic Service Expedition, 1939– 1941. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 89: 1– 3. Walton, E. W. K. 1955. Two Years in the Antarctic. London: Lutterworth Publishers. Wråkberg, Urban, ed. 1999. The Centennial of S. A. Andrée’s North Pole Expedition. Stockholm: Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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Page 28 and 29: in ice sheets. The latest collapse
Page 30 and 31: Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
Page 32 and 33: British Association for the Advance
Page 34 and 35: cations, in which the Smithsonian s
Page 36 and 37: ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
Page 38: Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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Page 66 and 67: From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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Page 70 and 71: FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
Page 72 and 73: National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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Page 82 and 83: group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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Page 94: Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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