Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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the world were encouraged to ensure against catastrophic destruction of a single center and to make the data accessible to researchers in different parts of the world. While the national IGY committees were responsible for delivering timely and quality data, the world data centers were responsible for the safekeeping, reproduction, cataloging, and accessibility of the data. Anyone engaged in research was to be given access. If you could get yourself into the host country and up to the door of the data center, you could not be turned away (P. Hart, personal communication). We know there were gaps, and the limits of East– West cooperation became immediately apparent in the satellite program. However, the rules of the game were in place, establishing norms of behavior that lasted well beyond the IGY. Finally, the IGY publications included but went much further than peer reviewed scientifi c journals. The Annals of the IGY, 48 volumes published by Pergamon Press between 1959 and 1970 (International Council of Scientifi c Unions, 1959; Fleagle, 1994:170), record not only the results of the research, but also the process of developing the IGY— the international meetings, the world data center guidelines, and the resolutions. This was a self-conscious documentation effort, and we are still benefi ting from that today. We have journalists’ accounts such as Walter Sullivan’s Assault on the Unknown (1961). Upon completion of the IGY research, Sullivan was given virtually unfettered access to the IGY fi eld projects and documentation. The establishment of the world data centers and the constant encouragement by the U.S. National Committee for researchers to publish and share their results in many forms demonstrated to many audiences the ability of science organizations to live up to their commitments. The world data centers, which continue to function today, were instrumental in continuing the legacy of the IGY: coordinated, international science to understand the interactions of atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes. While entrepreneurs initiated schemes and linked solutions to problems, the thousands of people who carried out the work and contributed results gave credibility to the geophysical sciences, both in the United States and in other countries. Suffi cient trust had been established to begin the demilitarization of geophysics. CONCLUSION The IGY can teach us something about both process and results. The ways in which Berkner, Chapman, Odishaw, and many others pursued the activities of agenda- POLICY PROCESS AND THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR 31 setting, linking solutions to problems, and establishing a pattern of credible commitments, turned a casual conversation among a few experts into a whirlwind series of international expeditions and experiments. There are many other ways of looking at the IGY. Elsewhere, I have compared my approach to the story of the blind men and the elephant. After they felt different parts of the animal, they each proclaimed the elephant looked like a tree trunk, a snake, and a fan (Korsmo, 2007a). The policy sciences are useful in deciding what rules of decision-making and allocation of resources work the best for different types of projects in different contexts. The context I chose here was primarily based in the United States, but it would be quite valuable to compare both current and historical science policy evolution in other countries during the time of the IGY. This symposium is an important step in the documentation of our present efforts in the International Polar Year 2007– 2008. Due to the precedents set by the IGY and its successors, such as the International Years of the Quiet Sun (1964– 1965) and the Upper Mantle Project (1962– 1970), we have international frameworks for scientifi c cooperation as well as a history of data sharing and long-term environmental observations. While the IGY did not include social sciences, it supported a surprising amount of geography and natural history associated with the study of ice sheets and mountain glaciers. The umbrella was large enough to include these projects and contribute to our knowledge of alpine and Arctic ecosystems. The glaciology program of the IGY was a bridge between the physical and biological sciences, paving the way for programs such as UNESCO’s International Hydrological Decade, 1965– 1974 (Kasser 1967; Muller 1970). In a similar fashion, the social and human studies included in the present International Polar Year 2007– 2008 are a bridge between science and policy. Their inclusion (e.g., Krupnik et al., 2005) provides even more opportunity for self-refl ection and evaluation of what lessons and legacies we will leave for the future. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to several IGY 1957– 1958 participants, including Pembroke Hart and Phillip Mange, for their insights and recollections. I also wish to thank the archivists and staff of the following institutions for their assistance in locating and accessing the archival and oral history collections used in this research: Sydney Chapman Papers, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Elmer E. Rasmuson Library, Alaska and Polar Regions Collections; Nathaniel C. Gerson Papers and Alan T. Waterman
32 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSMO Papers, U.S. Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division; IGY Collection at the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Archives; Oral History Collection, Niels Bohr Library and Archives, Center for History of Physics, American Institute of Physics; Polar Archival Program, Ohio State University Libraries; and U.S. Research and Development Board Collection, Record Group 330, Entry 341, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. This material is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) while I was working at the foundation. Any opinions, fi ndings, and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily refl ect the views of NSF. APPENDIX 1 THE CSAGI BUREAU MEMBERS AND REPORTERS, IPY 1957– 1958 The following list demonstrates the breadth of disciplines and expertise represented among the international IGY leadership (Nicolet, 1984:314). CSAGI Bureau S. Chapman, President (UK) L. Berkner, Vice President (USA) M. Nicolet, Secretary General (Belgium) J. Coulomb, Member (France) V. Beloussov, Member (USSR) CSAGI Discipline Reporters World Days (when intensive measurements would be taken)— A. H. Shapley (USA) Meteorology— J. Van Mieghem (Belgium) Geomagnetism— V. Laursen (Denmark) Aurora and Airglow— S. Chapman (UK), with F. Roach and C. Elvey (USA) Ionosphere— W. J. G. Beynon (UK) Solar Activity— Y. Ohman (Sweden) Cosmic Rays— J. A. Simpson (USA) Longitudes and Latitudes— J. Danjon (France) Glaciology— J. M. Wordie (UK) Oceanography— G. Laclavére (France) Rockets and Satellites— L. V. Berkner (USA) Seismology— V. V. Beloussov (USSR) Gravimetry— P. Lejay (France) Nuclear Radiation— M. Nicolet (Belgium) APPENDIX 2 MEMBERS OF THE FIRST U.S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR IPY 1957– 1958 The following list of U.S. IGY leadership shows a mixture of disciplinary and professional society representation and the direct involvement of U.S. government agencies (Atwood, 1952). Chair J. Kaplan, representing the U.S. National Committee of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics Members L. H. Adams, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington Henry Booker, International Scientifi c Radio Union (URSI) Lyman W. Briggs, National Geographic Society G. M. Clemence, U.S. Naval Observatory C. T. Elvey, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska John A. Fleming, American Geophysical Union Nathaniel C. Gerson, Cambridge Research Directorate, U.S. Air Force Paul Klopsteg, National Science Foundation F. W. Reichelderfer, U.S. Weather Bureau and World Meteorological Organization Elliot B. Roberts, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Alan H. Shapley, U.S. Bureau of Standards Paul A. Siple, representing U.S. National Committee of the International Geography Union, Association of American Geographers, and General Staff, U.S. Army Otto Struve, representing U.S. National Committee of the International Astronomy Union Merle Tuve, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington Lincoln Washburn, Snow, Ice, and Permafrost Research Establishment, U.S. Corps of Engineers, and the Arctic Institute of North America Ex-offi cio Members Wallace W. Atwood Jr., Director, Offi ce of International Relations, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council Lloyd V. Berkner, Member, Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year J. Wallace Joyce, Deputy Science Advisor, U.S. Department of State
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Page 4 and 5: Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
Page 6 and 7: Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
Page 8: CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
Page 11 and 12: x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
Page 13 and 14: xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
Page 15 and 16: xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
Page 18 and 19: Advancing Polar Research and Commun
Page 20 and 21: James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
Page 22 and 23: ology fueled hopes that the scienti
Page 24 and 25: Meteorologists also provided critic
Page 26 and 27: visualize weather patterns remotely
Page 28 and 29: in ice sheets. The latest collapse
Page 30 and 31: Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
Page 32 and 33: British Association for the Advance
Page 34 and 35: cations, in which the Smithsonian s
Page 36 and 37: ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
Page 38: Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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Page 66 and 67: From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
Page 68 and 69: ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
Page 70 and 71: FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
Page 72 and 73: National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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Page 76 and 77: e rapidly deployed to South America
Page 78 and 79: “Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
Page 80 and 81: 1942). Ethnological collecting had
Page 82 and 83: group. More importantly, Murdoch’
Page 84 and 85: gan to study the question of Indian
Page 86 and 87: small museums and culture centers i
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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