Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE SOUTH POLE Viper was a 2.1-m off-axis telescope designed to allow measurements of low-contrast millimeter-wave sources. It was mounted on a tower at the opposite end of MAPO from DASI. Viper was used with a variety of instruments: Dos Equis, a CMB polarization receiver operating at 7 mm; the Submillimeter Polarimeter for Antarctic Remote Observing (SPARO), a bolometric array polarimeter operating at λ450�m; and the Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver (ACBAR), a multiwavelength bolometer array used to map the CMB. The ACBAR is a 16-element bolometer array operating at 300 mK. It was specifi cally designed for observations of CMB anisotropy and the Sunyaev– Zel’dovich effect (SZE). It was installed on the Viper telescope early in 2001 and was successfully operated until 2005. The ACBAR has made high-quality maps of SZE in several nearby clusters of galaxies and has made signifi cant measurements of anisotropy on the scale of degrees to arcminutes (Runyan et al., 2003; Reichardt et al., 2008). The Submillimeter Polarimeter for Antarctic Remote Observing (SPARO) was a nine-pixel polarimetric imager operating at λ450�m. It was operational on the Viper telescope during the early austral winter of 2000. Novak et al. (2000) mapped the polarization of a region of the sky (�0.25 square degrees) centered approximately on the Galactic Center. Their results imply that within the Galactic Center molecular gas complex, the toroidal component of the magnetic fi eld is dominant. The data show that all of the existing observations of large-scale magnetic fi elds in the Galactic Center are basically consistent with the “magnetic outfl ow” model of Uchida et al. (1985). This magnetodynamic model was developed in order to explain the Galactic Center radio lobe, a limb-brightened radio structure that extends up to one degree above the plane and may represent a gas outfl ow from the Galactic Center. The Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI; Leitch et al., 2002a) was a compact centimeter-wave interferometer designed to image the CMB primary anisotropy and measure its angular power spectrum and polarization at angular scales ranging from two degrees to several arcminutes. As an interferometer, DASI measured CMB power by simultaneous differencing on several scales, measuring the CMB power spectrum directly. The DASI was installed on a tower adjacent to MAPO during the 1999– 2000 austral summer and had four successful winter seasons. In its fi rst season, DASI made measurements COSMOLOGY FROM ANTARCTICA 363 of CMB anisotropy that confi rmed with high accuracy the “concordance” cosmological model, which has a fl at geometry, and made signifi cant contributions to the total stress energy from dark matter and dark energy (Halverson et al., 2002; Pryke et al., 2002). In its second year, DASI made the fi rst measurements of “E-mode” polarization of the CMB (Leitch et al., 2002c; Kovac et al., 2002). The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observatory (AST/RO) was a general-purpose 1.7-mdiameter telescope (Stark et al., 1997, 2001) for astronomy and aeronomy studies at wavelengths between 200 and 2,000 �m. It was operational from 1995 through 2005 and was located in the Dark Sector on its own building. It was used primarily for spectroscopic studies of neutral atomic carbon and carbon monoxide in the interstellar medium of the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds. Six heterodyne receivers and a bolometer array were used on AST/RO: (1) a 230-GHz superconductor- insulator-superconductor (SIS) receiver (Kooi et al., 1992), (2) a 450- to 495-GHz SIS quasi-optical receiver (Zmuidzinas and LeDuc, 1992; Engargiola et al., 1994), (3) a 450- to 495-GHz SIS waveguide receiver (Walker et al., 1992; Kooi et al., 1995), which could be used simultaneously with (4) a 800- to 820-GHz fi xed-tuned SIS waveguide mixer receiver (Honingh et al., 1997), (5) the Pole Star array, which deployed four 800- to 820-GHz fi xedtuned SIS waveguide mixer receivers (see http:// soral .as .arizona .edu/ pole-star; Groppi et al., 2000; Walker et al., 2001), (6) the Terahertz Receiver with NbN HEB Device (TREND), a 1.5-THz heterodyne receiver ( Gerecht et al., 1999; Yngvesson et al., 2001), and (7) the South Pole Imaging Fabry-Perot Interferometer (SPIFI; Swain et al., 1998). Spectral lines observed with AST/RO included CO J � 7 j 6, CO J � 4 j 3, CO J � 2 j 1, HDO J � 10,1 j 00,0 , [C I] 3 P1 j 3 P0 , [C I] 3 P2 j 3 P1, and [ 13 C I] 3 P2 j 3 P1. There were four acousto- optical spectro meters (AOS; Schieder et al., 1989): two lowresolution spectrometers with a bandwidth of 1 GHz, an array AOS with four lowresolution spectrometer channels with a bandwidth of 1 GHz for the PoleSTAR array, and one high-resolution AOS with 60-MHz bandwidth. The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observatory produced data for over a hundred scientifi c papers relating to star formation in the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds. Among the more signifi cant contributions is a submillimeter-wave spectral line survey of the Galactic Center region (Martin et al., 2004) that showed the episodic nature of starburst and black hole activity in the center of our galaxy (Stark et al., 2004).
364 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WILSON AND STARK The Q and U Extra-Galactic Sub-mm Telescope (QUEST) at DASI (QUaD; Church et al., 2003) is a CMB polarization experiment that placed a highly symmetric antenna feeding a bolometer array on the former DASI mount at MAPO, becoming operational in 2005. It is capable of measuring amplitude and polarization of the CMB on angular scales as small as 0.07°. The QUaD has suffi cient sensitivity to detect the conversion of E-mode CMB polarization to B-mode polarization caused by gravitational lensing in concentrations of dark matter. Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization (BICEP) (Keating et al., 2003; Yoon et al., 2006) is a millimeter-wave receiver designed to measure polarization and amplitude of the CMB over a 20° fi eld of view with 1° resolution. It is mounted on the roof of the Dark Sector Laboratory and has been operational since early 2006. The design of BICEP is optimized to eliminate systematic background effects and thereby achieve suffi cient polarization sensitivity to detect the component of CMB polarization caused by primordial gravitational waves. These measurements test the hypothesis of infl ation during the fi rst fraction of a second after the Big Bang. The South Pole Telescope is a 10-m-diameter off-axis telescope that was installed during the 2006– 2007 season (Ruhl et al., 2004). It is equipped with a large fi eld of view (Stark, 2000) that feeds a state-of-the-art 936-element bolometer array receiver. The initial science goal is a large SZE survey covering 4,000 square degrees at 1.3� resolution with 10 �K sensitivity at a wavelength of 2 mm. This survey will fi nd all galaxy clusters above a mass limit of 3.5 � 10 14 M�, regardless of redshift. It is expected that an unbiased sample of approximately 8,000 clusters will be found, with over 300 at redshifts greater than one. The sample will provide suffi cient statistics to use the density of clusters to determine the equation of state of the dark energy component of the universe as a function of time. CONCLUSIONS Observations from the Antarctic have brought remarkable advances in cosmology. Antarctic observations have defi nitively demonstrated that the geometry of the universe is fl at. These observations were made possible by excellent logistical support offered for the pursuit of science at the Antarctic bases. The cold climate and lack of water vapor provide atmospheric conditions that, for some purposes, are nearly as good as space but at greatly reduced cost. Antarctica provides a platform for innovative, small instruments operated by small groups of sci- entists as well as telescopes that are too large to be lifted into orbit. In the future, Antarctica will continue to be an important site for observational cosmology. LITERATURE CITED Alvarez, D. L. 1995. Measurements of the Anisotropy in the Microwave Background on Multiple Angular Scales with the Python Telescope. Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, Princeton, N.J. Bussmann, R. S., W. L. Holzapfel, and C. L. Kuo. 2004. Millimeter Wavelength Brightness Fluctuations of the Atmosphere above the South Pole. Astrophysical Journal, 622: 1343– 1355. Chamberlin, R. A. 2002. “Comparisons of Saturated Water Vapor Column from Radiosonde, and mm and submm Radiometric Opacities at the South Pole.” In Astronomical Site Evaluation in the Visible and Radio Range, ed. J. Vernin, Z. Benkhaldoun, and C. Muñoz- Tuñón, p. 172– 178. ASP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 266. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacifi c. Chamberlin, R. A., and J. Bally. 1995. The Observed Relationship Between the South Pole 225 GHz Atmospheric Opacity and the Water Vapor Column Density. International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves, 16:907. Chamberlin, R. A., A. P. Lane, and A. A. Stark. 1997. The 492 GHz Atmospheric Opacity at the Geographic South Pole. Astrophysical Journal, 476: 428. Church, S., P. Ade, J. Bock, M. Bowden, J. Carlstrom, K. Ganga, W. Gear, J. Hinderks, W. Hu, B. Keating, J. Kovac, A. Lange, E. Leitch, O. Mallie, S. Melhuish, A. Murphy, B. Rusholme, C. O’Sullivan, L. Piccirillo, C. Pryke, A. Taylor, and K. Thompson. 2003. QUEST on DASI: A South Pole CMB Polarization Experiment, New Astronomy Review, 47: 1083– 1089. Coble, K., M. Dragovan, J. Kovac, N. W. Halverson, W. L. Holzapfel, L. Knox, S. Dodelson, K. Ganga, D. Alvarez, J. B. Peterson, G. Griffi n, M. Newcomb, K. Miller, S. R. Platt, and G. Novak. 1999. Anisotropy in the Cosmic Microwave Background at Degree Angular Scales: Python V Results. Astrophysical Journal Letters, 519: L5. de Bernardis, P., P. A. R. Ade, J. J. Bock, J. R. Bond, J. Borrill, A. Boscaleri, K. Coble, B. P. Crill, G. De Gasperis, P. C. Farese, P. G. Ferreira, K. Ganga, M. Giacometti, E. Hivon, V. V. Hristov, A. Iacoangeli, A. H. Jaffe, A. E. Lange, L. Martinis, S. Masi, P. V. Mason, P. D. Mauskopf, A. Melchiorri, L. Miglio, T. Montroy, C. B. Netterfi eld, E. Pascale, F. Piacentini, D. Pogosyan, S. Prunet, S. Rao, G. Romeo, J. E. Ruhl, F. Scaramuzzi, D. Sforna, and N. Vittorio. 2000. A Flat Universe from High-Resolution Maps of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Nature, 404: 955. Dragovan, M., S. R. Platt, R. J. Pernic, and A. A. Stark. 1989. “South Pole Submillimeter Isotropy Measurements of the Cosmic Microwave Background.” In Astrophysics in Antarctica, ed. D. J. Mullan, M. A. Pomerantz, and T. Stanev, p. 97, New York: AIP Press. Dragovan, M., A. A. Stark, R. Pernic, and M. A. Pomerantz. 1990. Millimetric Sky Opacity Measurements from the South Pole. Applied Optics, 29: 463. Dragovan, M., J. Ruhl, G. Novak, S. R. Platt, B. Crone, R. Pernic, and J. Peterson. 1994. Anisotropy in the Microwave Sky at Intermediate Angular Scales. Astrophysical Journal Letters, 427: L67. Engargiola, G., J. Zmuidzinas, and K.-Y. Lo. 1994. 492 GHz Quasioptical SIS Receiver for Submillimeter Astronomy. Review of Scientifi c Instruments, 65: 1833. Fixsen, D. J., E. S. Chang, J. M. Gales, J. C. Mather, R. A. Shafer, and E. L. Wright. 1996. The Cosmic Microwave Background Spectrum from the Full COBE FIRAS Data Set. Astrophysical Journal, 473: 576– 587.
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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Page 352 and 353: Capital Expenditure and Income (For
Page 354 and 355: tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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Page 374 and 375: Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
Page 376 and 377: Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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Page 384: J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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Page 398 and 399: Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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Page 404 and 405: Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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Page 412 and 413: Index AAUS. See American Academy of
Page 414 and 415: temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
Page 416 and 417: Fishing. See also Biological invasi
Page 418 and 419: McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
Page 420 and 421: Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
Page 422: U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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