Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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James P. Espy (1785– 1860), the fi rst meteorologist employed by the U.S. government, captured the basic difference between the lone astronomer and the needs of the gregarious meteorologist: The astronomer is, in some measure, independent of his fellow astronomer; he can wait in his observatory till the star he wishes to observe comes to his meridian; but the meteorologist has his observations bounded by a very limited horizon, and can do little without the aid of numerous observers furnishing him contemporaneous observations over a wide-extended area. (Espy, 1857:40) Espy worked closely with Joseph Henry (1797– 1878), the fi rst secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, to create a meteorological network of up to 600 volunteer observers, reporting monthly, that spanned the entire United States and extended internationally. Some telegraph stations also cooperated, transmitting daily weather reports to Washington, D.C., where the information was posted on large maps in the Smithsonian Castle (Figure 1) and at the U.S. Capitol. The Smithsonian meteorological project provided standardized instruments, uniform procedures, free publications, and a sense of scientifi c unity; it formed a “seedbed” for the continued growth of theories rooted in data. To increase knowledge of the atmosphere, it sponsored original research on storms and climate change; to diffuse knowledge, it published and ADVANCING POLAR RESEARCH 3 distributed free reports, instructions, and translations. It soon became the U.S. “national center” for atmospheric research in the mid-nineteenth century, as well as a clearinghouse for the international exchange of data (Fleming, 1990:75– 94). Nineteenth-century meteorology benefi ted from many of the leading technologies and theories available at the time, which, in turn, fueled public expectations about weather prediction. Telegraphy provided instantaneous transmission of information, at least between stations on the grid, and connected scientists and the public in a vast network of information sharing. Nineteenth-century meteorology, climatology, and other areas of geophysics were undoubtedly stimulated by telegraphic communications that enabled simultaneous observations, data sharing, and timing of phenomena such as auroras, occultations, and eclipses. The vast amounts of gathered data also encouraged scientists to experiment with new ways of portraying the weather and other phenomena on charts and maps (Anderson, 2006). In an effort to enhance both the understanding and prediction of weather phenomena, Yale professor Elias Loomis (1811– 1889) searched for “the law of storms” governing storm formation and motion (Figure 2) (Fleming, 1990:77– 78, 159). He also mapped the occurrence, intensity, and frequency of auroras from global records, providing a preview of what might be accomplished by observing at high latitudes (Figure 2) (Shea and Smart, 2006). FIGURE 2. Charts by Elias Loomis, ca. 1860. (left) Trajectories of storms entering northeastern USA. Source (Fleming 1990, 159); (right) Frequency of aurora borealis sightings; darker band shows at least 80 auroras annually (http://www.phy6.org/Education/wloomis.html).
4 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FLEMING AND SEITCHEK Public demand for weather-related information worldwide led to the establishment of many national services by the 1870s. In the United States, the Army Signal Offi ce was assigned this task and soon took the lead in international cooperation. In 1873, the U.S. proposed that all nations prepare an international series of simultaneous observations to aid the study of world climatology and weather patterns. This suggestion led to the Bulletin of International Simultaneous Observations, which contained worldwide synoptic charts and summaries of observations recorded at numerous locations around the world (Figure 3) (Myer, 1874:505). Beginning in 1871, the U.S. National Weather Service issued daily forecasts, heightening public expectations that weather could be known— and in some cases, prepared for— in advance. The increasing density and geographic extent of information becoming available in meteo- FIGURE 3. International Synoptic Chart: Observations cover the Northern Hemisphere, except for the oceans and polar regions. Dashed lines indicate projected or interpolated data. Source: U.S. Army Signal Offi ce, Bulletin of International Meteorology, 28 January 1884.
Page 2 and 3: Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
Page 4 and 5: Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
Page 6 and 7: Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
Page 8: CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
Page 11 and 12: x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
Page 13 and 14: xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
Page 15 and 16: xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
Page 18 and 19: Advancing Polar Research and Commun
Page 22 and 23: ology fueled hopes that the scienti
Page 24 and 25: Meteorologists also provided critic
Page 26 and 27: visualize weather patterns remotely
Page 28 and 29: in ice sheets. The latest collapse
Page 30 and 31: Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
Page 32 and 33: British Association for the Advance
Page 34 and 35: cations, in which the Smithsonian s
Page 36 and 37: ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
Page 38: Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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Page 53 and 54: 36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
Page 66 and 67: From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
Page 68 and 69: ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH
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100 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROW
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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130 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUP
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144 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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206 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINS
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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266 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KOOY
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272 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNT
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286 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUET
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300 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEAL
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310 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / SMIT
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320 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEB
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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370 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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372 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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374 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALK
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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