Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS 217 FIGURE 7. Avicularia and vibracula of some Antarctic bryozoan species studied. (a) Living branch of Nematofl ustra with vibracula in undisturbed position. (b) Vibracula-sweeping polychaete from colony surface (still photo from video). (c) Beania livingstonei. Arrow points to one of the bird’s head avicularia. (d) Nematode caught by several avicularia (still photo from video). (e) Long-stalked bird’s head avicularia of Camptoplites colony. (f) Worm speared by one of the sharp-pointed mandibles of Micropora brevissima. Tiny arrow points to mandible inside worm’s translucent body.
218 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINSTON shut. They show no increase in activity when a trespassing organism touches the branches, but when a mandible intercepts an object soft and narrow enough to grasp (such as a polychaete chaeta or arthropod appendage), it snaps shut upon it. The swaying activity then carries the organism toward the edge of the colony (Winston, 1991). MICROPORA— SESSILE AVICULARIA Micropora brevissima (Figure 7f) has sessile avicularia with sharply pointed mandibles. In avicularia of this type, the bodies of the avicularia are fi xed on the colony, and their mandibles close rarely, remaining in an open position even when zooid opercula are shut. The mandible shuts in response to physical stimuli, probing, jarring, or vibration of palate or mandible. Despite their small size, such avicularia are able to capture and hold relatively large trespassers by their appendages, e.g., cirri of polychaetes or legs of amphipods or pycnogonids. During observations of living colonies of this species carried out at Palmer Station, avicularia of Micropora captured several annelids and held them despite their much greater size (Winston, 1991). CONCLUSIONS Antarctic bryozoans are taxonomically rich and, like many other Antarctic organisms, show a high degree of endemism. Preliminary analysis of USARP bryozoan collections from the Ross Sea and Antarctic Peninsula yielded 222 species from all three marine orders: fi ve ctenostomes, 28 cyclostomes, and 189 cheilostomes. Hayward (1995) studied Antarctic cheilostomes, primarily from British Antarctic research programs but also including some information from USARP collections. He listed 264 species of cheilostomes, of which 215 (81%) were endemic. Moyano (2005) took a different approach in summarizing taxonomic research on Antarctic bryozoans through 2004. He included taxa from all three orders, but some of his totals included subantarctic species. His list totaled 315 species, 250 (79%) of which were endemic. Antarctic bryozoans are abundant. It is hard to fi nd a published underwater benthic photograph from the Antarctic in which a bryozoan colony cannot be seen, and in many areas, their skeletons, along with sponge spicules and glacial pebbles, make up a signifi cant component of the sediment. As shown in results from work at Low Island and elsewhere, bryozoans play a signifi cant role in benthic ecosystems, providing habitat and foraging ground as well as a minor food resource for fi sh and motile invertebrates. Many of the erect, branching, and foliose bryozoans which form such three-dimensional habitats are perennial, with life spans lasting several years, perhaps several decades. Their growth rates are slow and their fecundity low. Carbasea ovoidea, the exception to this pattern at Low Island, is a species whose northernmost range extends into the subantarctic and probably reaches the southernmost extent of its range somewhere along the peninsula (Hayward, 1995). Most of the Antarctic fi sh and many other benthic invertebrates that feed among the bryozoans are similarly slow growing and long-lived. Their survival has depended on long-term stability of their environment. Two factors, trawling (illegal fi shing), which has already decimated stocks of the most desirable fi sh species, and global climate change, could have severe consequences for such communities. The impact of climate change will differ depending on the temperature scenario. As pointed out by Thatje et al. (2005), the lowering of temperatures, leading to a glacial period, could almost completely eliminate the benthic fauna of the Antarctic shelf and slope. Increasing temperatures (as seen today, especially in the West Antarctic) will probably lead to enhanced diversity in a few habitats (e.g., the intertidal zone of the peninsula) but also to a change in present-day communities due to human impact and temperature stress. Human impact, including increased travel, both scientifi c and touristic, will increase the likelihood of ship fouling (Lewis et al., 2005; Barnes and Conlan, 2007). In addition, an increase in growth rate with higher temperatures has already been detected in one bryozoan, Cellarinella nutti (Barnes et al., 2006). As Collie et al. (2000) noted in their analysis of the impacts of fi shing on shelf benthos, there are large gaps in our knowledge of the effects of trawling on three-dimensional epifaunal communities. Reduction in habitat complexity caused by intensive bottom fi shing may have longterm negative consequences for fi sh communities (loss of nest sites and nursery and breeding grounds). Although benthic habitats with a high degree of structural heterogeneity occur in areas besides Antarctica, such as New Zealand (Bradstock and Gordon, 1983; Batson and Probert, 2000) and Helgoland (de Kluijver, 1991), they are rare. In only one (Tasman Bay, New Zealand) have erect bryozoan communities been protected in an attempt to restore a fi shery (Bradstock and Gordon, 1983). Finally, despite all the biological work that has occurred in the Antarctic since the 1980s, we still have a very poor idea of the link between what happens in pelagic communities and the benthos. A solid understanding
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH
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100 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROW
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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130 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUP
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144 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK
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Page 208 and 209: ing such cryptic speciation suggest
Page 210 and 211: LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
Page 212 and 213: Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
Page 214 and 215: Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
Page 216 and 217: ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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Page 240 and 241: Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
Page 242 and 243: Many theories have been hypothesize
Page 244 and 245: FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
Page 246 and 247: are wider and more bulbous in the a
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Page 250 and 251: faces for SEM observation. The spec
Page 252 and 253: DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
Page 254 and 255: out its length. The pulp chamber al
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Page 258 and 259: Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
Page 260 and 261: TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
Page 262 and 263: attaching ice anchors to the chunks
Page 264 and 265: dumping of weight under water. The
Page 266 and 267: MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Page 270 and 271: Environmental and Molecular Mechani
Page 272 and 273: face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
Page 274 and 275: FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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Page 280: Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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268 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KOOY
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270 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KOOY
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272 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNT
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286 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUET
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300 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEAL
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310 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / SMIT
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320 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEB
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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370 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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372 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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374 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALK
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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