Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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Urine should be copious and clear and diuretics (coffee, tea, and alcohol) should be avoided before a dive. DECOMPRESSION Mueller (2007) reviewed the effect of cold on decompression stress. The relative contributions of tissue N2 solubility and tissue perfusion to the etiology of decompression sickness (DCS) are not resolved completely. Over-warming of divers, especially active warming of cold divers following a dive, may induce DCS. Divers in polar environments should, therefore, avoid getting cold during decompression and/or after the dive and if they feel hypothermic, wait before taking hot showers until they have rewarmed themselves, for example, by walking. The effect of cold on bubble grades (as measured by Doppler scores) may be the same for a diver who is only slightly cold as for one who is severely hypothermic. Long-term health effects for divers with a high proportion of coldwater dives should be considered in the future. Dive computers were examined for use by scientifi c divers (Lang and Hamilton, 1989) and have now been effectively used in scientifi c diving programs for almost two decades in lieu of U.S. Navy or other dive tables. Currently, the decompression status of all USAP divers is monitored through the use of dive computers ( UWATEC Aladin Pro) and data loggers (Sensus Pro). Battery changes may be needed more frequently because of higher discharge rates in extreme cold. Advantages of dive computers over tables include their display of ascent rates, no- decompression time remaining at depth, and their dive profi le downloading function. Generally, no more than two repetitive dives are conducted to depths less than 130fsw (40msw) and reverse dive profi les for no- decompression dives less than 40msw (130fsw) and depth differentials less than 12 msw (40fsw) are authorized (Lang and Lehner, 2000). Oxygen-enriched air ( nitrox) capability (Lang, 2006) and rebreather use have, to date, not been requested nor implemented by the USAP Diving Program. Cold and the physical exertion required to deal with heavy gear in polar diving can increase the risk of DCS. Furthermore, because of the polar atmospheric effect, the mean annual pressure altitude at McMurdo Station is 200 meters. Under certain conditions, pressure altitude may be as low as 335 meters at sea level. Surfacing from a long, deep dive (on dive computer sea level settings) to an equivalent altitude of 335 meters may increase the probability of DCS. Safety stops of three to fi ve minutes between 10- to 30foot (3.3 to 10 m) depths are required for all dives (Lang and Egstrom, 1990). SCIENTIFIC DIVING UNDER ICE 251 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to thank the Smithsonian Offi ce of the Under Secretary for Science, the National Science Foundation Offi ce of Polar Programs, the U.K. NERC Facility for Scientifi c Diving, Diving Unlimited International, Inc., and Raytheon Polar Services Company. LITERATURE CITED Andersen, D. T. 2007. “Antarctic Inland Waters: Scientifi c Diving in the Perennially Ice-Covered Lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and Bunger Hills.” In Proceedings of the International Polar Diving Workshop. ed. M. A. Lang and M. D. J. Sayer, pp. 163– 170. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Brueggeman, P. 2003. Diving under Antarctic Ice: A History. Scripps Institution of Oceanography Technical Report. http:// repositories .cdlib .org/ sio/ techreport/ 22 (accessed 8 August 2008). Clarke, J. R., and M. Rainone. 1995. Evaluation of Sherwood Scuba Regulators for Use in Cold Water. U.S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit Technical Report 9– 95. Panama City: U.S. Navy. Haddock, S. H. D., and J. N. Heine. 2005. Scientifi c Blue-Water Diving. California Sea Grant College Program. La Jolla, Calif.: University of California. Kooyman, G. 2009. “Milestones in the Study of Diving Physiology: Antarctic Emperor Penguins and Weddell Seals.” In Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang, and S. E. Miller, pp. 265– 270. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. Lang, M. A. 2006. The State of Oxygen-Enriched Air (Nitrox). Journal of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, 36(2): 87– 93. Lang, M. A., and G. H. Egstrom, eds. 1990. Proceedings of the Biomechanics of Safe Ascents Workshop. Costa Mesa, Calif.: American Academy of Underwater Sciences. Lang, M. A., and R. W. Hamilton, eds. 1989. Proceedings of the Dive Computer Workshop. Costa Mesa, Calif.: American Academy of Underwater Sciences and California Sea Grant College Program. Lang, M. A., and C. E. Lehner, eds. 2000. Proceedings of the Reverse Dive Profi les WorkshopWashington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Lang, M. A., A. G. Marsh, C. McDonald, E. Ochoa, and L. Penland. 2007. “Diving First Aid Training for Scientists.” In Diving for Science: Proceedings of the AAUS 25th Symposium, ed. J. M. Godfrey and N. W. Pollock., pp. 85– 102. Dauphin Island, Ala.: American Academy of Underwater Sciences. Lang, M. A., and R. Robbins. 2007. “USAP Scientifi c Diving Program.” In Proceedings of the International Polar Diving Workshop, ed. M. A. Lang and M. D. J. Sayer, pp. 133– 155. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Lang, M. A., and M. D. J. Sayer, eds. 2007. Proceedings of the International Polar Diving Workshop. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Lang, M. A., and J. R. Stewart, eds. 1992. Proceedings of the Polar Diving Workshop. Costa Mesa, Calif.: American Academy of Underwater Sciences. Mueller, P. H. J. 2007. “Cold Stress as Decompression Sickness Factor.” In Proceedings of the International Polar Diving Workshop, ed. M. A. Lang and M. D. J. Sayer, pp. 63– 72. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Muir, S. F., D. K. A. Barnes, and K. Reid. 2006. Interactions between Humans and Leopard Seals. British Antarctic Survey Technical Report. Cambridge, U.K.: British Antarctic Survey.
252 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LANG AND ROBBINS Quetin, L. B., and R. M. Ross. 2009. “Life under Antarctic Pack Ice: A Krill Perspective.” In Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang, and S. E. Miller, pp. 285– 298. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. Robbins, R. 2006. “USAP Surface-Supplied Diving.” In Proceedings of the Advanced Scientifi c Diving Workshop, ed. M. A. Lang and N. E. Smith, pp. 187– 191. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Somers, L. H. 1988. “Training Scientifi c Divers for Work in Cold Water and Polar Environments.” In Proceedings of Special Session on Coldwater Diving, ed. M. A. Lang and C. T. Mitchell, pp. 13– 28. Costa Mesa, Calif.: American Academy of Underwater Sciences. USAP. 1991. Standards for the Conduct of Scientifi c Diving. Arlington, Va.: National Science Foundation, Offi ce of Polar Programs.
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH
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100 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROW
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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130 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUP
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144 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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Page 240 and 241: Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
Page 242 and 243: Many theories have been hypothesize
Page 244 and 245: FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
Page 246 and 247: are wider and more bulbous in the a
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Page 252 and 253: DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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Page 258 and 259: Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
Page 260 and 261: TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
Page 262 and 263: attaching ice anchors to the chunks
Page 264 and 265: dumping of weight under water. The
Page 266 and 267: MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
Page 270 and 271: Environmental and Molecular Mechani
Page 272 and 273: face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
Page 274 and 275: FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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Page 280: Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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302 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEAL
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310 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / SMIT
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320 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEB
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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370 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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372 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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374 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALK
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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