Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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as excess property and become commodities for speculation by collectors and agents. In more recent times, as our ability to collect has met serious fi nancial, personnel, and storage limitations, this concern has diminished somewhat and there is now healthy consideration of establishing a means to distribute the responsibility of preservation. This includes establishing a “national strategy” of sharing the responsibility for preserving the heritage among many institutions. But ultimately, we generally accept the view that what it is we are doing by collecting is making this material heritage accessible to future generations in a manner that will stimulate interest and remembrance of an historical era or event. A clear symptom of this rationale for sacralization and protection from the commodity sphere comes from a unique agreement the Smithsonian Institution maintains with NASA, the “NASA/NASM Transfer Agreement” (Agreement, 1967). This document asserts that any object on NASA’s inventories that is deemed by a select committee of NASA program managers and specialists to be historic and excess to present agency needs must be offered fi rst to the National Air and Space Museum for its collection. The NASM will then deliberate and decide upon collection. If it agrees, the object is transferred to the Smithsonian inventory. If not, it goes on the normal “excess property” listings and can be transferred to other agencies, or sold to the public. It is the existence of this agreement that gives the Space History collection at NASM its special responsibility. Even though the IGY-era collections predate the agreement, many came to the Museum as a result of its existence, well after the close of the era. There is yet another aspect of collecting in Space History that warrants attention here that adds to its unique character and will help us evaluate our IGY-era collections. Many of the most important objects, those responsible for the actual science performed, are not available for collection and never will be. They were launched, and were either consumed through use or by re-entry, or are now in orbits that make them inaccessible. What we can collect, therefore, are surrogates for the “real thing.” They may be very close in form and function, like fl ight backups, but they are not the actual objects that made the historic observations or performed the historic feats, such as the fi rst soft landing on the moon, Mars, Titan, or an asteroid. There are exceptions, of course, such as the panoramic camera from Surveyor III that was returned to Earth by Apollo 12 astronauts (NASM Catalogue number I19900169001; hereafter, just the alphanumerical code will be used: “I” for incoming loan, “A” for accession). There are objects returned from Shuttle missions, as well as objects that returned to earth PRESERVING THE ORIGINS OF THE SPACE AGE 37 by design, like the particle collectors aboard Stardust, and interplanetary probes that were launched and might someday be captured and returned, like the third International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE-3). In addition to its special relationship with NASA, and its unique responsibilities, NASM must still justify what it collects both internally and externally. Individuals rarely rationalize why they collect what they collect but institutions, especially public ones, must provide clear and cogent rationalizations in order to gain the support to identify, collect, and preserve. One need only consider the large costs involved in collection and preservation, and the long-term commitment an institution or a culture is willing to make in supporting such efforts. Thus, given this mandate, and limitations, how representative is “what was collected” to “what there was”? THE TIME BOUNDARIES OF THE IGY LEGACY The legacy of the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957– 1958 predates NASA, of course, though many of the objects that one can describe as belonging to the IGY era came from NASA, which inherited the legacy upon its formation in August 1958 and retained much of it for years at its visitor centers and in storage. We can roughly limit the IGY-era legacy in space by establishing its beginning as the material legacy growing out of planning for the IGY since the early 1950s (see Korsmo, this volume), to the launch of Explorer VII in October 1959, Vanguard III in September 1959, and two Discoverer launches (VII and VIII) through 20 November 1959 (Green and Lomask, 1970). Explorer VII was the last Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) satellite and was transferred to NASA. It represents the end of the legacy started by Sputnik 1 and Explorer 1 and the IGY context, even though transfer of all programs to NASA took place with NASA’s creation in the fall of 1958 via the National Aeronautics and Space Act. The major American programs linked to the IGY era include Vanguard (I– III), Explorer (I– VII), Pioneer (I– IV), and the military programs known as Project SCORE and Discoverer (I– VIII). Russian programs included Sputnik (I– III) and Luna (I– III). THE NASM COLLECTION More than 200 objects in the national collection can be associated with IGY-era space-related activities. These reside in several NASM sub-collections, including rocketry
38 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VORKIN and propulsion, the space sciences, memorabilia, international, and social and cultural collections. There are partialscale and full-scale models, replicas, engineering models, components, medals, badges, and ephemera (collectibles). In this review, we consider only the artifact collections, not fl at materials in our library and archives, including monographs, serials, technical publications, print and fi lm resources, as well as extensive manuscript collections or oral histories (see http:// www.siris.si.edu/ and http://www.nasm .si.edu/ research/ arch/ collections.cfm). IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: PREPARING FOR THE IGY In addition to numerous examples of early sounding rocket payloads for both atmospheric and space research— such as ultraviolet spectrographs, X-ray detectors, magnetometers, varieties of halogen quenched particle fl ux counters, mass spectrometers, temperature and pressure sensors, and cameras built for V-2, Viking, Aerobee and ARCAS fl ights from the late 1940s through the 1950s— the NASM collection preserves objects intended specifi cally for use during the IGY, such as a visual Project Moonwatch telescope (A19860036000) (Figure 1) and the fi rst Baker- Nunn satellite tracking camera (A19840406000) mounted in Arizona. The most curious object, symbolic of the aspirations of S. Fred Singer, one of the original members of the group that conceived the IGY, is MOUSE (Minimal Orbital Unmanned Satellite, Earth), a full-scale design concept model for an artifi cial satellite (A19731670000). It carries two Geiger counters for cosmic-ray studies, photocells, telemetry electronics, and a rudimentary magnetic data storage element (Figure 2). The rocketry collection has examples of small sounding rockets derived from barrage ordnance technology, such as the Loki-Dart (A19750183000; 0184000), and various combinations that were used in the 1950s for atmospheric measurements and as payloads under Skyhook balloons for extreme high-altitude soundings by the University of Iowa and by the Navy. IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: SPUTNIK In addition to one of the fi rst full-scale models of Sputnik 1 on loan to the Smithsonian from the Soviet Union/ Russia (I19900388002), as well as the original electrical arming pin removed from the fl ight unit just before launch (I19971143001), the Museum holds six objects relating to the fl ight, all in the collectible category and ranging from a cigarette lighter and commemorative pin to medals and a music box. There are no holdings relating to, or informing, the technical characteristics of any of the early FIGURE 1. Project Moonwatch telescope (A19860036000), preserved and on display at the NASM’s Hazy Center. Amateurs and commercial organizations alike built thousands of instruments of this type; they exist in many forms. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory created and coordinated the Moonwatch program to produce preliminary orbital elements of the fi rst satellites. (NASM photograph) FIGURE 2. S. Fred Singer’s full-scale concept model for an artifi cial satellite (A19731670000). (Eric Long photograph, NASM)
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
Page 4 and 5: Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
Page 6 and 7: Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
Page 8: CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
Page 11 and 12: x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
Page 13 and 14: xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
Page 15 and 16: xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
Page 18 and 19: Advancing Polar Research and Commun
Page 20 and 21: James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
Page 22 and 23: ology fueled hopes that the scienti
Page 24 and 25: Meteorologists also provided critic
Page 26 and 27: visualize weather patterns remotely
Page 28 and 29: in ice sheets. The latest collapse
Page 30 and 31: Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
Page 32 and 33: British Association for the Advance
Page 34 and 35: cations, in which the Smithsonian s
Page 36 and 37: ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
Page 38: Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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Page 53: 36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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Page 66 and 67: From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
Page 68 and 69: ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
Page 70 and 71: FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
Page 72 and 73: National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
Page 74 and 75: FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
Page 76 and 77: e rapidly deployed to South America
Page 78 and 79: “Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
Page 80 and 81: 1942). Ethnological collecting had
Page 82 and 83: group. More importantly, Murdoch’
Page 84 and 85: gan to study the question of Indian
Page 86 and 87: small museums and culture centers i
Page 88 and 89: fer of Alaskan objects and informat
Page 90 and 91: fi rst time in polar research— di
Page 92 and 93: Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
Page 94: Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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88 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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