Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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Ocean endemic. These two species, the Southern Ocean endemic and its closest relative outside of the Southern Ocean, are referred to here as a sibling species pair. Fifteen endemics among the 17 sibling species pairs (Figure 1) have an allopatric distribution, rather than being sympat- Calanoides acutus C. carinaatus Euchirella rostromagna E. rostrata Haloptilus ocellatus H. oxycephalus Heterorhabdus austrinus H. abyssalis Onchocalanus paratrigoniceps O. trigoniceps Paraeuchaeta rasa P. aequatorialis P. antarctica sp gr P. bisinuata Paraeuchaeta regalis P. calva Paraeuchaeta eltaninae P. scotti Paraeuchaeta pseudotonsa P. tonsa Paraheterorhabdus farrani P. robustus Pseudochirella mawsoni P. pustulifera Rhincalanus gigas R. nasutus Scaphocalanus antarcticus S. cristatus Scaphocalanus farrani S. echinatus Scolecithricella hadrosoma S. emarginata Scolecithricella cenotelis S. ovata PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 165 ric with its closest relative. In addition, the antarctica species group of Paraeuchaeta is also allopatric with its most closely related congener, P. bisinuata. The only exception is the pair Haloptilus ocellatus and H. oxycephalus; these two species may be considered allopatric but with a narrow S 35 0 35 N FIGURE 1. Distribution of selected pelagic calanoids of the Southern Ocean and their closest relatives.
166 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI zone of overlap. For many common or very common deepwater calanoid species that are endemic to the Southern Ocean (Figure 1, Tables 4, 5), the closest relative is not found in the Southern Ocean, is widely distributed, is rare, and is usually associated with oligotrophic habitats. Examples of these deepwater sibling species pairs (Southern Ocean species fi rst) include (Figure 1) Euchirella rostromagna and E. rostrata, Paraeuchaeta pseudotonsa and P. tonsa, P. antarctica and P. bisinuata, Scaphocalanus cristatus and S. antarcticus, and Paraheterorhabdus farrani and P. robustus. The members of some sibling species pairs are so similar to each other morphologically that, originally, they were regarded as the same species, e.g., Paraeuchaeta tonsa and P. pseudotonsa or Euchirella rostrata and E. rostromagna. In addition to being more numerous, the Southern Ocean endemics are usually larger in size than their smaller, rare, cosmopolitan counterparts. Between members of the deepwater pairs, the common or very common endemics adapted to the eutrophic habitat of the Southern Ocean are hypothesized to have evolved from a rare widespread species adapted to oligotrophic habitats (Park, 1994). This evolutionary event has resulted in two closely related species, a sibling species pair with the species outside of the Southern Ocean remaining adapted to an oligotrophic environment and the Southern Ocean species adapted to high-productivity habitats. In view of the close morphological similarity between the species of a sibling species pair, this process seems to have a relatively short evolutionary history. However, this hypothesis does not imply that all pairs evolved about the same time. The situation for Paraeuchaeta antarctica appears to be more complicated than a case of a simple sibling species pair. Paraeuchaeta antarctica is a very common predator and is morphologically similar to four other endemic species, P. similis, P. austrina, P. erebi, and P. tycodesma. These fi ve endemic species make up the antarctica species group (Fontaine, 1988). All fi ve of these species can be found to occur sympatrically adjacent to the ice edge of Antarctica. Paraeuchaeta austrina, P. erebi, and P. tycodesma are restricted to this habitat, while P. antarctica and P. similis may be found throughout the Southern Ocean. The most similar congener, and presumed closest relative, of the antarctica species group is P. bisinuata. Paraeuchaeta bisinuata is a rare deepwater species found in all the world’s oceans except the Southern Ocean. Paraeuchaeta bisinuata and the common ancestor of the antarctica species group are hypothesized to have been a sibling species pair. The common ancestor of the antarctica species group is assumed to have colonized the Southern Ocean, eventually adapting and being confi ned to the eutrophic habitat. All of its descendants, including P. austrina, P. erebi, and P. tycodesma, which are associated with waters adjacent to the ice edge, and the more broadly distributed P. similis and P. antarctica, are restricted to the Southern Ocean. Paraeuchaeta bisinuata, the cosmopolitan species of the original pair, remains associated with oligotrophic habitats throughout the world’s oceans. To summarize, the evolution of deepwater endemic species of the Southern Ocean can be hypothesized from an ordered set of changes in distribution and subsequent morphological divergence in the following way: (1) beginning with a rare, widely distributed species adapted to oligotrophic habitats, e.g., Augaptilus glacialis, (2) a Southern Ocean population becomes associated with its eutrophic habitat and becomes separated from the rare, widely distributed, oligotrophic species; (3) the Southern Ocean endemic population adapts to this eutrophic habitat, and its population size increases. It diverges from the rare, widely distributed, oligotrophic species, resulting in a sibling species pair, e.g., Scolecithricella farrani and S. echinates. Another type of species pair identifi ed in this study requires different explanatory conditions about the evolution of the Southern Ocean fauna. A bipolar species pair consists of two morphologically similar species, presumed closest relatives, one that is endemic to the Southern Ocean and a second that is endemic to the Arctic Ocean and adjacent boreal waters. Several endemic species of the Southern Ocean have a morphologically similar congener in the Arctic region (Table 7, Figure 2). The morphological similarities between the members are so close that some of the pairs were recognized as separate species only recently, e.g., the Southern Ocean Scaphocalanus farrani was separated from S. brevicornis by Park (1982). In general, the number of morphological differences is few and the degree of the morphological divergence is slight between members of these southern and northern oceanic pairs, e.g., Paraheterorhabdus farrani and P. longispinus, Scaphocalanus parantarcticus and S. acrocephalus, and Paraeuchaeta regalis and P. polaris. The extent of the morphological similarity between these polar species suggests that they may have been derived from a common ancestor (see below), although this does not imply that all pairs have evolved about the same time. The evolution of deepwater bipolar species pairs can be hypothesized from an ordered set of changes in distribution and subsequent morphological divergence in the following way. Beginning with a widely distributed deepwater species with shallow populations in the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean, e.g., Paraeuchaeta barbata, (1)
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH
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100 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROW
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Page 132 and 133: From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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Page 144: the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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Page 198 and 199: Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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Page 208 and 209: ing such cryptic speciation suggest
Page 210 and 211: LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
Page 212 and 213: Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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216 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINS
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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266 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KOOY
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272 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNT
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286 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUET
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300 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEAL
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310 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / SMIT
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320 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEB
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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370 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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372 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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374 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALK
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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