Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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and (2) human-mediated responses to climate change increase the propagule supply and decrease the resistance to invasion (to the extent it exists) through disturbance. The change in invasion risk at high latitudes is expected to increase most in the Northern Hemisphere, driven by potentially large scale increases in the level of commercial shipping and shoreline development (especially associated with extraction of mineral resources). Fisheries, tourism, and fl oating debris also are likely to increase the opportunity for invasions, but to a much smaller degree. The consequences of climate change for invasions at high latitudes deserve serious attention from a conservation and management perspective. While global shifts in climate (especially temperature) are underway and serve to increase chances of polar invasions, it appears that human responses to climate change will largely determine the number of invasions that occur. Although nonnative species can arrive to polar ecosystems by natural dispersal (Barnes et al., 2006), these regions are relatively isolated geographically, and the scope for human transport is far greater. Signifi cant efforts should now focus on understanding and reducing the transfer of nonnative species to the poles, aiming to avoid the high number and signifi cant impacts of introductions experienced in temperate waters. Efforts to minimize invasion risk at lower latitudes have employed several approaches that are applicable and should be adopted in polar regions. These are conceptually simple, focusing especially on (1) prevention or reduction of species transport by human activities and (2) detection of invasions by nonnative species. In many nations, regulations exist to greatly reduce the delivery of organisms that pose some risk of invasions (Ruiz and Carlton, 2003). While these sometimes focus on specifi c species that are known to survive or cause signifi cant impacts in a region, many strategies are now aimed at reducing transfers of all organisms associated with a known vector, especially because the number of potential species is vast and the risks of colonization and impacts are simply not known (i.e., have not been examined) for most species. As an example, this approach of vector management is now being applied to commercial ships in many countries, where ships are required to treat their ballast water before discharging in coastal areas, reducing the concentrations of all coastal organisms (e.g., Minton et al., 2005). A comprehensive effort to reduce species transfers should include an assessment of potential human- mediated vectors as the basis for developing and implementing vector management (Ruiz and Carlton, 2003). For polar systems, policies could be adopted immediately to reduce LATITUDINAL PATTERNS OF MARINE INVASIONS 355 transfers by commercial ships, extending efforts developed in temperate latitudes, since ships’ ballast water and hulls are known to carry a risk of invasions (Ruiz et al., 2000; Fofonoff et al., 2003; Hewitt et al., 2004). Analyses of additional present and future vectors, such as oil drilling platforms and fi sheries activities, would be obvious next steps to estimate the potential magnitude of species transfers and to consider options for vector management. In addition to vector management, efforts to detect invasions and to measure temporal changes in invasions should be established in polar regions. Ideally, this would include an initial baseline survey and repeated surveys through time designed explicitly to test hypotheses about invasions (e.g., Ruiz and Hewitt, 2002) and address several management needs. First, these data would provide a measure of whether invasions are occurring and help identify specifi c vector(s) for management, providing feedback on how well management strategies are working to limit invasions (Ruiz and Carlton, 2003). Second, resulting detections of new invasions would also enable efforts to eradicate or control invasions, as deemed desirable. These strategies for prevention and detection are easily understood, but implementation is not so easy to achieve. Often, there are issues related to resources (time and funding), limiting the desired scope of effort. In addition, there can be issues related to jurisdiction that further complicate implementation, resulting from political (geographic) boundaries and institutional (legal) authorities. Unfortunately, in temperate marine systems, these impediments to effective management strategies are often not overcome until a threshold of signifi cant ecological or economic impacts is reached. Since few invasions are known for polar systems to date, the opportunity now exists to implement management and policy that would greatly limit invasions and their unwanted impacts in these unique communities. Given the transboundary aspects of polar systems, there is a clear need for international cooperation and agreements in this area. We hope this article stimulates actions to evaluate and reduce invasion risks at high latitudes, applying the principals, methods, and experiences from temperate marine systems around the globe. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to thank Michael Lang at the Smithsonian Institution Offi ce of the Under Secretary for Science for the opportunity to participate in the IPY Symposium. The content of this manuscript benefi ted from discussions with Gail Ashton, Paul Fofonoff, Amy Freestone, Tuck Hines, Mark
356 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / RUIZ AND HEWITT Minton, Whitman Miller, and Brian Steves, all of Smithsonian Environmental Research Center; Catherine deRivera, University of Portland; and Gretchen Lambert. Research in Alaska was supported by National Sea Grant Program, Prince William Sound Citizens’ Advisory Council, Smithsonian Institution, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. LITERATURE CITED Aleyeska Pipeline Service Company. About Us. http:// www .alyeska-pipe .com /about .html (accessed 2 May 2008). Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. 2005. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. New York: Cambridge University Press. Aronson, R., S. Thatje, A. Clarke, L. Peck, D. Blake, C. Silga, and B. Seibel. 2007. Climate Change and Invasibility of the Antarctic Benthos. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 38: 129– 154. Barnes, D .K. A. 2002. Invasions by Marine Life on Plastic Debris. Nature, 416: 808– 809. Barnes, D. K. A., D. A. Hodgson, P. Convey, C. S. Allen, and A. Clarke. 2006. Incursion and Excursion of Antarctic Biota: Past, Present, and Future. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 15: 121– 142. Carlton, J. T. 1985. Transoceanic and Interoceanic Dispersal of Coastal Marine Organisms: The Biology of Ballast Water. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 23 :313– 371. ———. 2001. Introduced Species in US Coastal Waters: Environmental Impacts and Management Priorities. Pew Ocean Commissions, Arlington, Virginia. Castilla, J. C., M. Uribe, N. Bahamonde, M. Clarke, R. Desqueyroux- Faúndez, I. Kong, H. Moyano, N. Rozbaczylo, B. Santilices, C. Valdovinos, and P. Zavala. 2005. Down under the Southeastern Pacifi c: Marine Non-indigenous Species in Chile. Biological Invasions, 7: 213– 232. Cavalieri, D., C. Parkinson, and K. Vinnikov. 2003. 30-Year Satellite Record Reveals Contrasting Arctic and Antarctic Decadal Sea-Ice Variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(18): 1970, doi:10.1029/ 2003GL018031. CIESM. CIESM Atlas of Exotic Species in the Mediterranean. http:// www .ciesm .org/ online/ atlas/ intro .htm (accessed 1 June 2007). Clarke, A., D. K. A. Barnes, and D. A. Hodgson. 2005. How Isolated is Antarctica? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20: 1– 3. Clayton, M. N., C. Weincke, and H. Kloser. 1997. New Records of Temperate and Sub-Antarctic Marine Benthic Macroalgae from Antarctica. Polar Biology, 17: 141– 149. Cohen, A. N., and J. T. Carlton. 1995. Biological Study: Non-indigenous Aquatic Species in a United States Estuary: A Case Study of the Biological Invasions of the San Francisco Bay and Delta. NTIS Report PB96-166525. U.S. Fisheries and Wildlife and National Sea Grant College Program, Springfi eld, Va. ———. 1998. Accelerating Invasion Rate in a Highly Invaded Estuary. Science, 279: 555– 558. Coutts, A. D. M. 1999. Hull Fouling as a Modern Vector for Marine Biological Invasions: Investigation of Merchant Vessels Visiting Northern Tasmania. Master’s thesis, Australian Maritime College, Launceston, Tasmania. Cranfi eld, H. J., D. P. Gordon, R. C. Willan, B. A. Marshall, C. N. Battershill, M. P. Francis, W. A. Nelson, C. J. Glasby, and G. B. Read. 1998. Adventive Marine Species in New Zealand. NIWA Technical Report 34. National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand. deRivera, C. E., B. P. Steves, G. M. Ruiz, P. Fofonoff and A. H. Hines. 2007. Northward Spread of Marine Nonindigenous Species along Western North America: Forecasting Risk of Colonization in Alaskan Waters Using Environmental Niche Modeling. Final Report. Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council of Prince William Sound and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. Fofonoff, P. W., G. M. Ruiz, B. Steves, and J. T. Carlton. 2003. “In Ships or on Ships? Mechanisms of Transfer and Invasion for Non-native Species to the Coasts of North America.” In Invasive Species: Vectors and Management Strategies, ed. G. M. Ruiz and J. T. Carlton, pp. 152– 182. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Fofonoff, P. W., G. M. Ruiz, A. H. Hines, B. D. Steves, and J. T. Carlton. In press. “Four Centuries of Estuarine Biological Invasions in the Chesapeake Bay Region.” In Marine Bioinvasions: Ecology, Conservation, and Management Perspectives, ed. G. Rilov and J. Crooks. New York: Springer-Verlag. Glasby, T. M., S. D. Connell, M. G. Holloway, and C. L. Hewitt. 2007. Facilitation of Marine Biological Invasions— The Role of Habitat Creation. Marine Biology, 151: 887– 895. Grosholz, E. D. 1996. Contrasting Rates of Spread for Introduced Species in Terrestrial and Marine Systems. Ecology, 77: 1680– 1686. ———. 2002. Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences of Coastal Invasions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 17: 22– 27. ———. 2005. Recent Biological Invasion May Hasten Invasional Meltdown by Accelerating Historical Introductions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102: 1088– 1091. Hewitt, C. L. 2002. The Distribution and Diversity of Tropical Australian Marine Bio-Invasions. Pacifi c Science, 56(2): 213– 222. Hewitt, C. L., M. L. Campbell, R. E. Thresher, and R. B. Martin, eds. 1999. Marine Biological Invasions of Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. CRIMP Technical Report, No. 20. Hobart, Australia: CSIRO Division of Marine Research. Hewitt, C. L., M. L. Campbell, R. E. Thresher, R. B. Martin, S. Boyd, B. F. Cohen, D. R. Currie, M. F. Gomon, M. J. Keogh, J. A. Lewis, M. M. Lockett, N. Mays, M. A. McArthur, T. D. O’Hara, G. C. B. Poore, D. J. Ross, M. J. Storey, J. E. Watson, and R. S. Wilson. 2004. Introduced and Cryptogenic Species in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia. Marine Biology, 144: 183– 202. Hewitt, C. L., M. L. Campbell, and B. Schaffelke. 2007. Introductions of Marine Macroalgae— Accidental Transfer Pathways and Mechanisms. Botanica Marina, 50: 326– 337. Hines, A. H., and G. M. Ruiz. 2000. 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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH
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100 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROW
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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130 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUP
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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206 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINS
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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266 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KOOY
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272 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNT
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286 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUET
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Page 352 and 353: Capital Expenditure and Income (For
Page 354 and 355: tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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Page 376 and 377: Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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Page 380 and 381: TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
Page 382 and 383: Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
Page 384: J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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Page 398 and 399: Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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Page 402 and 403: is constructing and deploying the P
Page 404 and 405: Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
Page 406 and 407: at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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Page 410 and 411: led these committees throughout the
Page 412 and 413: Index AAUS. See American Academy of
Page 414 and 415: temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
Page 416 and 417: Fishing. See also Biological invasi
Page 418 and 419: McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
Page 420 and 421: Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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