Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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has declined by 40%– 45% (Figure 4). We suggest that this analysis provides preliminary evidence from the Palmer LTER study region that populations of Antarctic krill are declining in this region in concert with the change in timing of advance of sea ice. However, to date, the analysis only encompasses two full cycles; an additional cycle may yield a different trend. SUMMARY Scuba diving research during the past 30 years has enhanced our understanding of the linkages between Antarctic krill and sea ice. We have been able to make key observations and conduct experiments on the dependency of larval Antarctic krill on the SIMCOs in the pack ice habitat. Our conceptual understanding of the ecology of the pack ice habitat and the intricacies of the interactions has greatly increased due to these activities. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to gratefully acknowledge the captains, crews, and support teams (from the NSF contractor, technicians, and volunteers) that have made our research over the years both possible and enjoyable. Discussions with some of our colleagues have helped develop the concepts and ideas contained within this manuscript, and those from whom we have most benefi ted in recent years are C. H. Fritsen (Desert Research Institute), M. Vernet (Scripps Institution of Oceanography), and S. Stammerjohn (NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies). This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation, Offi ce of Polar Programs, under Award Nos. OPP-9011927 and OPP-9632763, and OPP-0217282 for the Palmer LTER, OPP-9909933 for Southern Ocean GLOBEC, and ANT-0529087 for PIIAK, The Regents of the University of California, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the Marine Science Institute, UCSB. This is Palmer LTER contribution no. 315. NOTE 1. Since 1993 the Palmer LTER, a multidisciplinary program focused on the pelagic ecosystem west of the Antarctic Peninsula (Smith 1995), has conducted research cruises in January/February, sampling a geographical area from the southern end of Anvers Island to Marguerite Bay to the south. The sampling grid is composed of fi ve transect lines extending approximately 200 km offshore, with stations every 20 km, and 100 km apart alongshore, and covers an area of nearly 80,000 km 2 . LIFE UNDER ANTARCTIC PACK ICE 295 LITERATURE CITED Atkinson, A., R. S. Shreeve, and A. G. Hirst. 2006. Natural Growth Rates in Antarctic Krill (Euphausia superba): II. Predictive Models Based on Food, Temperature, Body Length, Sex, and Maturity Stage. Limnology and Oceanography, 51: 973– 987. Atkinson, A., V. Siegel, E. A. Pakhomov, and P. Rothery. 2004. Long- Term Decline in Krill Stock and Increase in Salps within the Southern Ocean. Nature, 432: 100– 103. Atkinson, A., and R. Snÿder. 1997. Krill-Copepod Interactions at South Georgia, Antarctica, I. Omnivory by Euphausia superba. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 160: 63– 76. Barrera-Oro, E. 2002. The Role of Fish in the Antarctic Marine Food Web: Differences between Inshore and Offshore Waters in the Southern Scotia Arc and West Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctic Science, 14: 239– 309. Bunt, J. S. 1963. Diatoms of Antarctic Sea Ice as Agents of Primary Production. Nature, 199: 1255– 1257. Cadée, G. C., H. González, and S. B. Schnack-Schiel. 1992. Krill Diet Affects Faecal String Settling. Polar Biology, 12: 75– 80. Cook, A. J., A. J. Fox, D. G. Vaughan, and J. G. Ferrigno. 2005. Retreating Glacier Fronts on the Antarctic Peninsula over the Past Half- Century. Science, 308: 541– 544. Croxall, J. P. 1984. “Seabirds.” In Antarctic Ecology, ed. R. M. Laws, pp. 533– 616. London: Academic Press. Croxall, J. P., P. A. Prince, and C. Ricketts. 1985. “Relationships between Prey Life Cycles and the Extent, Nature, and Timing of Seal and Seabird Predation in the Scotia Sea.” In Antarctic Nutrient Cycling and Food Webs, ed. W. R. Siegfried, P. R. Condy, and R. M. Laws, pp. 516– 533. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Cuzin-Roudy, J. 1993. Reproductive Strategies of the Mediterranean Krill, Meganyctiphanes norvegica and the Antarctic Krill, Euphausia superba (Crustacea, Euphausiacea). Invertebrate Reproduction and Development, 23: 105– 114. ———. 2000. Seasonal Reproduction, Multiple Spawning and Fecundity in Northern Krill, Meganyctiphanes norvegica, and Antarctic Krill, Euphausia superba. Proceedings of the Second International Krill Symposium, Santa Cruz, California, August 1999. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 57(Suppl. 3): 6– 15. Cuzin-Roudy, J., and J. P. Labat. 1992. Early Summer Distribution of Antarctic Krill Sexual Development in the Scotia-Weddell Region: A Multivariate Approach. Polar Biology, 12: 65– 74. Daly, K. L., and M. C. Macaulay. 1988. Abundance and Distribution of Krill in the Ice Edge Zone of the Weddell Sea, Austral Spring 1983. Deep-Sea Research, 35: 21– 41. ———. 1991. Infl uence of Physical and Biological Mesoscale Dynamics on the Seasonal Distribution and Behavior of Euphausia superba in the Antarctic Marginal Ice Zone. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 79: 37– 66. Daniels, R. M., T. L. Richardson, and H. W. Ducklow. 2006. Food Web Structure and Biogeochemical Processes during Oceanic Phytoplankton Blooms: An Inverse Model Analysis. Deep-Sea Research II, 53: 532– 554. Dayton, P. K. 1972. “Toward an Understanding of Community Resilience and the Potential Effects of Enrichments to the Benthos at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica.” In Proceedings of the Colloquium on Conservation Problems in Antarctica, ed. B. C. Parker, 81–96. Lawrence, Kan.: Allen Press. Ducklow, H. W., K. Baker, D. G. Martinson, L. B. Quetin, R. M. Ross, R. C. Smith, S. E. Stammerjohn, M. Vernet, and W. Fraser. 2007. Marine Pelagic Ecosystems: The West Antarctic Peninsula. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 362: 67– 94.
296 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUETIN AND ROSS Eicken, H. 1992. The Role of Sea Ice in Structuring Antarctic Ecosystems. Polar Biology, 12: 3– 13. Ellison, A. M., M. S. Bank, B. D. Clinton, E. A. Colburn, K. Elliot, C. R. Ford, D. R. Foster, B. D. Kloeppel, J. D. Knoepp, G. M. Lovett, J. Mohan, D. A. Orwig, N. L. Rodenhouse, W. V. Sobczak, K. A. Stinson, J. K. Stone, C. M. Swan, J. Thompson, B. Von Holle, and J. R. Webster. 2005. Loss of Foundation Species: Consequences for the Structure and Dynamics of Forested Ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3: 479– 486. Everson, I. 2000. “Role of Krill in Marine Food Webs: The Southern Ocean.” In Krill: Biology, Ecology and Fisheries, ed. I. Everson, pp. 194– 201. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. Fogg, G. E. 2005. A History of Antarctic Science. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Fowler, S. W., and L. F. Small. 1972. Sinking Rates of Euphausiid Fecal Pellets. Limnology and Oceanography, 17: 293– 296. Frazer, T. K. 1995. On the Ecology of Larval Krill, Euphausia superba, during Winter: Krill– Sea Ice Interactions. Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara. Frazer, T. K., L. B. Quetin, and R. M. Ross. 1997. “Abundance and Distribution of Larval Krill, Euphausia superba, Associated with Annual Sea Ice in Winter.” In Antarctic Communities: Species, Structure and Survival, ed. B. Battaglia, J. Valencia, and D. W. H. Walton, pp. 107– 111. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ———. 2002. Abundance, Sizes and Developmental Stages of Larval Krill, Euphausia superba, during Winter in Ice-Covered Seas West of the Antarctic Peninsula. Journal of Plankton Research, 24: 1067– 1077. Fritsen, C. H., S. F. Ackley, J. N. Kremer, and C. W. Sullivan. 1998. “Flood-Freeze Cycles and Microalgal Dynamics in Antarctic Pack Ice.” In Antarctic Sea Ice— Biological Processes, Interactions and Variability, ed. M. P. Lizotte and K. R. Arrigo, pp. 1– 21. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. Fritsen, C. H., J. C. Memmott, and F. J. Steward. 2008. Interannual Sea Ice Dynamics and Micro-Algal Biomass in Winter Pact Ice: Marguerite Bay, Antarctica. Deep-Sea Research, Part II, 55, doi:10.1016/ j.dsr2.2008.04.034. Fritsen, C. H., and C. W. Sullivan. 1997. “Distributions and Dynamics of Microbial Communities in the Pack of the Western Weddell Sea, Antarctica.” In Antarctic Communities: Species, Structure and Survival, ed. B. Battaglia, J. Valencia, and D. W. H. Walton, pp. 101– 106. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Garibotti, I. A., M. Vernet, M. E. Ferrario, R. C. Smith, R. M. Ross, and L. B. Quetin. 2003. Phytoplankton Spatial Distribution Patterns along the Western Antarctic Peninsula (Southern Ocean). Marine Ecology Progress Series, 261: 21– 39. Gille, S. T. 2002. Warming of the Southern Ocean since the 1950s. Science, 295: 1275– 1277. González, H. E. 1992. The Distribution and Abundance of Krill Faecal Material and Oval Pellets in the Scotia and Weddell Seas (Antarctica) and Their Role in Particle Flux. Polar Biology, 12: 81– 91. Guzman, O. 1983. “Distribution and Abundance of Antarctic Krill (Euphausia superba) in the Bransfi eld Strait.” In On the Biology of Krill Euphausia superba, ed. S. B. Schnack, pp. 169– 190. Bremerhaven, Germany: Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar Research. Hagen, W., G. Kattner, A. Terbrüggen, and E. S. van Vleet. 2001. Lipid Metabolism of Antarctic Krill Euphausia superba and Its Ecological Implications. Marine Biology, 139: 95– 104. Hamner, W. M., P. P. Hamner, B. S. Obst, and J. H. Carleton. 1989. Field Observations on the Ontogeny of Schooling of Euphausia superba Furciliae and Its Relationship to Ice in Antarctic Waters. Limnology and Oceanography, 34: 451– 456. Hamner, W. M., P. P. Hamner, S. W. Strand, and R. W. Gilmer. 1983. Behavior of Antarctic Krill, Euphausia superba: Chemoreception, Feeding, Schooling, and Molting. Science, 220: 433– 435. Hewitt, R., D. A. Demer, and J. H. Emery. 2003. An 8-Year Cycle in Krill Biomass Density Inferred from Acoustic Surveys Conducted in the Vicinity of the South Shetland Islands during the Austral Summers of 1991/1992 through 2001/2002. Aquatic Living Resources, 16: 205– 213. Hewitt, R. P., J. L. Watkins, M. Naganobu, V. Sushin, A. S. Brierley, D. Demer, S. Kasatkina, Y. Takao, C. Goss, A. Malyshko, M. Brandon, S. Kawaguchi, V. Siegel, P. Trathan, J. Emery, I. Everson, and D. Miller. 2004. Biomass of Antarctic Krill in the Scotia Sea in January/ February 2000 and Its Use in Revising an Estimate of Precautionary Yield. Deep-Sea Research II, 51: 1215– 1236. Hoddell, R. J., A. C. Crossley, R. Willimas, and G. W. Hosie. 2000. The Distribution of Antarctic Pelagic Fish and Larvae (CCAMLR division 58.4.1). Deep-Sea Research II, 47: 2519– 2541. Hofmann, E. E., J. E. Capella, R. M. Ross, and L. B. Quetin. 1992. Models of the Early Life History of Euphausia superba— Part I: Time and Temperature Dependent Dependence during the Descent- Ascent Cycle. Deep-Sea Research, 39: 1177– 1200. Hopkins, T. L. 1985. The Zooplankton Community of Croker Passage, Antarctic Peninsula. Polar Biology, 4: 161– 170. Hopkins, T. L., and J. J. Torres. 1988. The Zooplankton Community in the Vicinity of the Ice Edge, Western Weddell Sea, March 1986. Polar Biology, 9: 79– 87. Hoshiai, T. 1985. Autumnal Proliferation of Ice-Algae in Antarctic Sea Ice. In Antarctic Nutrient Cycles and Food Webs, ed. W. R. Siegfried, P. R. Condy, and R. M. Laws, pp. 89–92. Berlin: Springer. Ikeda, T., and P. Dixon. 1982. Body Shrinkage as a Possible Over- Wintering Mechanism of the Antarctic Krill, Euphausia superba. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 62: 143– 151. Ju, S.-J., and H. R. Harvey. 2004. Lipids as Markers of Nutritional Condition and Diet in the Antarctic Krill Euphausia superba and Euphausia crystallorophias during Austral Winter. Deep-Sea Research II, 51: 2199– 2214. Kottmeier, S. T., and C. W. Sullivan. 1987. Late Winter Primary Production and Bacterial Production in Sea Ice and Seawater West of the Antarctic Peninsula. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 36: 287– 298. Lancraft, T. M., T. L. Hopkins, J. J. Torres, and J. Donnelly. 1991. Oceanic Micronektonic Macrozooplanktonic Community Structure and Feeding in Ice-Covered Antarctic Waters during the Winter (AMERIEZ 1988). Polar Biology, 11: 157– 167. Lancraft, T. M., J. J. Torres, and T. L. Hopkins. 1989. Micronekton and Macrozooplankton in the Open Waters Near Antarctic Ice Edge Zones (AMERIEZ 1983 and 1986). Polar Biology, 9: 225– 233. Laws, R. M. 1984. “Seals.” In Antarctic Ecology, ed. R. M. Laws, pp. 621– 716. London: Academic Press. ———. 1985. The Ecology of the Southern Ocean. American Scientist, 73: 26– 40. 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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH
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100 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROW
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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130 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUP
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144 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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Page 266 and 267: MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Page 270 and 271: Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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Page 352 and 353: Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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370 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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374 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALK
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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