Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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is constructing and deploying the Plateau Observatory (PLATO), an automated unmanned site-testing observatory (Lawrence et al., 2006). One of the instruments on PLATO, PreHEAT, is designed to characterize the site quality at submillimeter wavelengths and to map the J � 6– 5 emission of isotopically substituted 13 CO from massive star-forming regions and giant molecular clouds. It will be succeeded by the High Elevation Antarctic Terahertz Telescope (HEAT), a 0.5-m-aperture telescope designed to function around 0.2 mm wavelength. The HEAT will map the fi ne-structure emission from atomic and ionized carbon and nitrogen, together with CO 7– 6, to trace the evolution and recycling of the interstellar medium in our galaxy. The prospects for PreHEAT and HEAT at Dome A are discussed in more detail in Walker and Kulesa (2009, this volume). At the top of the continent, the boundary layer at Dome A may be only 3 to 4 m thick, which would make it much easier to place a telescope above the boundary layer, into what is likely to be very stable air with very good seeing. Other experiments on PLATO will test these predictions about the boundary layer at Dome A and sketch out its potential as a future observatory site. ANTARCTICA: DOME C Dome C is signifi cantly higher than the South Pole (around 3200 m elevation) and lies on a local maximum of the ice sheet along the ridge running through East Antarctica. It is likely to enjoy better conditions than the South Pole but not such good conditions as Dome A. Recent measurements (Lawrence et al., 2004) show the boundary layer to be about 30 m deep, with clear-air seeing above the layer estimated to be better than 0.3 arcseconds. Although Dome C probably enjoys better submillimeter atmospheric transparency than the South Pole, infrared astronomy seems more likely to be its greatest strength: the combination of excellent seeing, very little cloud cover, low thermal background (due to the cold air), and the presence of a year-round crewed station with strong logistical support makes it possible to build an infrared facility telescope with a primary mirror diameter of 2 m or more, which would be competitive with the largest telescopes elsewhere in the world (Burton et al., 2005). Detailed site testing at Concordia is being carried out by the IPY program STELLA ANTARCTICA and by members of the European Commission– funded network “Antarctic Research—A European Network for Astronomy” (ARENA). In the near future, this should lead to the construction and validation of a model of the boundary layer that allows telescopes to be designed to take advantage of the unusual conditions at this site. Two STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATEAU 385 small telescopes are in the process of being designed and deployed to Concordia: Antarctica Search for Transiting Extrasolar Planets (ASTEP) is an optical time series experiment, designed to monitor the brightness of nearby stars and watch for the fl uctuations as their planets transit. The International Robotic Antarctic Infrared Telescope (IRAIT) is a 0.8-m-aperture infrared telescope to carry out widefi eld infrared surveys and to test the site characteristics for a larger infrared telescope. GREENLAND: SUMMIT The atmosphere above the Greenland ice cap in winter is also dominated by katabatic fl ow. The peak of the ice cap (Summit station, at latitude 72°N) is therefore analogous to Dome A in Antarctica, albeit less extreme: lower (3200 m), warmer (about �42°C in good observing conditions), etc. Nonetheless, it should share many characteristics of Antarctic plateau sites, such as cold, dry, stable air. It has its own advantages: it is crewed year-round and access is easy in summer, possible in winter; it also has access to the northern sky, which is invisible from Antarctica. All these factors combine to give Summit excellent potential as an observatory site. There is also room for synergy with Antarctic observatories in order to cover more of the sky and to prototype and test equipment at a more easily accessible location. ELLESMERE ISLAND The northern tip of Ellesmere Island in Canada lies very close to the North Pole and thus offers at least one of the advantages of very high latitude sites, namely, the ready availability of 24-hour darkness with small changes in source elevation. Since this part of Ellesmere Island is rocky, with mountain peaks rising above the permanent sea ice, it is likely to have rather different meteorology to the smooth ice caps in Greenland and Antarctica. Automated weather stations have been placed on several candidate rocky peaks on the northern coast, and the fi rst results of this basic site testing are expected shortly. CONCLUSIONS Understanding the process of star formation requires the observation of infrared light (to see the young star through the gas and dust around it) and submillimeter waves (to estimate the physical conditions of the molecular gas itself). Observations from the Antarctic plateau
386 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / TOTHILL ET AL. offer large advantages in both of these regimes, demonstrated by the AST/RO observations of nearby molecular clouds, which yield a picture of quite different molecular clouds: Lupus I has strong coherent velocity gradients and may have been externally infl uenced, while Lupus III has been heated by associated young stars. During the International Polar Year, efforts to test the suitability of other sites for astronomy are under way: Concordia Station on Dome C is likely to be an excellent infrared site and is the best known. Other sites (Dome A, Summit, and Ellesmere Island) are at much earlier stages of characterization. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Arctic astronomical projects are being coordinated, for Ellesmere Island by Ray Carlberg (University of Toronto) and Eric Steinbring (Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics), and for Greenland by Michael Andersen (Niels Bohr Institute). The AstroPoles and STELLA ANTARCTICA programs are led by Michael Burton (University of New South Wales) and Eric Fossat (University of Nice), respectively. The ARENA network is coordinated by Nicolas Epchtein (University of Nice) and funded by the European Commission under the 6th Framework Programme. Operations at Dome A are carried out by the Polar Research Institute of China. The AST/RO was supported by the National Science Foundation’s Offi ce of Polar Programs under ANT-0441756. We also acknowledge fi nancial support from the University of Exeter. LITERATURE CITED Barnard, E. E. 1927. Catalog of 327 Dark Objects in the Sky. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Burton, M. G., J. S. Lawrence, M. C. B. Ashley, J. A. Bailey, C. Blake, T. R. Bedding, J. Bland-Hawthorn, I. A. Bond, K. Glazebrook, M. G. Hidas, G. Lewis, S. N. Longmore, S. T. Maddison, S. Mattila, V. Minier, S. D. Ryder, R. Sharp, C. H. Smith, J. W. V. Storey, C. G. Tinney, P. Tuthill, A. J. Walsh, W. Walsh, M. Whiting, T. Wong, D. Woods, and P. C. M. Yock. 2005. Science Programs for a 2-m Class Telescope at Dome C, Antarctica: PILOT, the Pathfi nder for an International Large Optical Telescope. Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia, 22: 199– 235. Lasker, B. M., C. R. Sturch, B. J. McLean, J. L. Russell, H. Jenker, and M. M. Shara. 1990. The Guide Star Catalog. I— Astronomical Foundations and Image Processing. Astronomical Journal, 99: 2019– 2058, 2173– 2178. Lawrence, J. S., M. C. B. Ashley, A. Tokovinin, and T. Travouillon. 2004. Exceptional Astronomical Seeing Conditions above Dome C in Antarctica. Nature, 431: 278– 281. Lawrence, J. S., M. C. B. Ashley, M. G. Burton, X. Cui, J. R. Everett, B. T. Indermuehle, S. L. Kenyon, D. Luong-Van, A. M. Moore, J. W. V. Storey, A. Tokovinin, T. Travouillon, C. Pennypacker, L. Wang, and D. York. 2006. Site Testing Dome A, Antarctica. Proceedings of SPIE, 6267: 51– 59. Stark, A. A., J. Bally, S. P. Balm, T. M. Bania, A. D. Bolatto, R. A. Chamberlin, G. Engargiola, M. Huang, J. G. Ingalls, K. Jacobs, J. M. Jackson, J. W. Kooi, A. P. Lane, K.-Y. Lo, R. D. Marks, C. L. Martin, D. Mumma, R. Ojha, R. Schieder, J. Staguhn, J. Stutzki, C. K. Walker, R. W. Wilson, G. A. Wright, X. Zhang, P. Zimmermann, and R. Zimmermann. 2001. The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observatory (AST/RO). Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacifi c, 113: 567– 585. Walker, C. K., and C. A. Kulesa. 2009. “HEAT: The High Elevation Antarctic Terahertz Telescope.” In Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang, and S. E. Miller, pp. 373–380. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press.
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH
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100 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROW
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From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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in befriending an extraordinary Inu
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The Smithsonian Institution’s pre
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of departure for research during th
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FIGURE 8. A drawing of the so-calle
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situated experiential education and
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the Past: Archaeologists, Native Am
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130 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUP
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Brooding and Species Diversity in t
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iefl y consider below some of the i
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ment. Consequently, the selective e
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ated from the Antarctic. Strong cur
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the four main genera of brooding sc
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ing such cryptic speciation suggest
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LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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Madon-Senez, C. 1998. Disparité Mo
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Persistent Elevated Abundance of Oc
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ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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286 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUET
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Page 352 and 353: Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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Page 380 and 381: TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Page 384: J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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Page 398 and 399: Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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Page 404 and 405: Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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Page 412 and 413: Index AAUS. See American Academy of
Page 414 and 415: temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
Page 416 and 417: Fishing. See also Biological invasi
Page 418 and 419: McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
Page 420 and 421: Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
Page 422: U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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