Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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TABLE 7. Very common deepwater calanoid species of the Southern Ocean (26 spp.). Species name Number of of specimens Species endemic to the Southern Ocean (14 spp.) Euaugaptilus antarcticus 136 Euchirella rostromagna 182 Haloptilus ocellatus 152 Paraeuchaeta antarctica 602 Paraeuchaeta biloba 370 Paraeuchaeta rasa 546 Scaphocalanus antarcticus 130 Scaphocalanus farrani 1,271 Scaphocalanus parantarcticus 289 Scaphocalanus subbrevicornis 188 Scaphocalanus vervoorti 1,936 Scolecithricella cenotelis 929 Scolecithricella dentipes 1,603 Scolecithricella schizosoma 151 Species ranging from the Southern Ocean to south temperate region (2 spp.) Paraeuchaeta regalis 109 Heterorhabdus spinosus 243 Species ranging from the Southern Ocean to the tropical region (1 sp.) Cornucalanus robustus 161 Species ranging from the Southern Ocean to the north temperate region (4 spp.) Haloptilus oxycephalus 388 Scolecithricella emarginata 226 Cornucalanus chelifer 111 Scaphocalanus echinatus 114 Species ranging from the Southern Ocean to the subarctic region (1 sp.) Scolecithricella minor 1,728 Species ranging from the Southern Ocean to the Arctic basin (3 spp.) Gaetanus brevispinus 150 Gaetanus tenuispinus 414 Paraeuchaeta barbata 462 Species with a bipolar distribution (1 sp.) Racovitzanus antarcticus 1,077 The 12 scolecitrichid species together were represented by 9,642 individuals from the Southern Ocean, and the fi ve Paraeuchaeta species were represented by 2,089 individuals. Three aetideid species and three augaptilids were represented by 746 and 676 individuals, respectively. On the basis of the relatively large number of specimens of Paraeuchaeta, Aetideidae, Heterorhabdidae, and Augaptilidae that are carnivores, all of these species are presumed to be well adapted to the high secondary productivity resulting from the large populations of epipelagic PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 161 herbivores in the Southern Ocean. Species of Scolecitrichidae play a major ecological role as pelagic detritivores in the Southern Ocean, just as species of Scolecitrichidae and related bradfordian families of calanoids play a similar role (detritivory) in the deepwater benthopelagic habitat of other oceans (Markhaseva and Ferrari, 2006). Because of their relatively small body size, scolecitrichids may also serve as a food source for carnivorous calanoids like species of Paraeuchaeta, the aetideids, and the augaptilids during periods when the juvenile stages of herbivores are unavailable as prey for these carnivores. These conclusions are reinforced by restricting observations to the 10 species represented in the Southern Ocean by more than 400 individuals (with number of individuals in parenthesis): Scaphocalanus vervoorti (1,936), Scolecithricella minor (1,728), S. dentipes (1,603), Scaphocalanus farrani (1,271), Racovitzanus antarcticus (1,077), Scolecithricella cenotelis (929), Paraeuchaeta antarctica (602), Paraeuchaeta rasa (546), Paraeuchaeta barbata (462), and Gaetanus tenuispinus (414). Four of the scolecitrichid species, Scaphocalanus vervoorti, S. farrani, Scolecithricella dentipes, and S. cenotelis, and two of the euchaetid species, Paraeuchaeta antarctica and P. rasa, are endemic to the Southern Ocean. The range of the very common Scolecithricella minor extends into the subarctic region, while Paraeuchaeta barbata and Gaetanus tenuispinus have been collected as far north as the Arctic basin. The scolecitrichid Racovitzanus antarcticus is also among the most common species in the Southern Ocean but exhibits a bipolar distribution, occurring in boreal waters adjacent to the Arctic basin. These 10 very common species either are endemic to the Southern Ocean (Scaphocalanus vervoorti, Scolecithricella dentipes, Scaphocalanus farrani, Scolecithricella cenotelis, Paraeuchaeta antarctica, and Paraeuchaeta rasa) or have a distribution that extends as far north as the subarctic region or Arctic basin (Scolecithricella minor, Racovitzanus antarctica, Paraeuchaeta barbata, and Gaetanus tenuispinus). None of the very common deepwater Southern Ocean pelagic calanoids have distributions that extend only to the south temperate region to the tropical region. Within the Southern Ocean the abundance and distribution of deepwater calanoids are believed to be determined, for the most part, by the availability of food rather than their adaptation to nonbiological environmental parameters such as water temperature (Park, 1994). Whether these eutrophic species are endemics or not, they are restricted to water of high primary and secondary productivity. They can be expected to be common or very common due to their adaptations for exploiting
162 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI the available food sources associated with that habitat. In contrast, oligotrophic species in the Southern Ocean are not presumed to be adapted to waters of high productivity. Their distribution is expected to be worldwide because they are capable of surviving at most levels of food resources anywhere in the world’s oceans. However, oligotrophic species are expected to be rare or very rare in most regions of the world’s oceans. With these constraints, a distribution of common or very common species is expected to be limited to the highly productive Southern Ocean; this is observed about half the time. Fourteen of the 26 common or very common species of the Southern Ocean are endemic. As noted, among the 10 most numerous of the very common species found in the Southern Ocean, six are endemic. Of the remaining four species represented by more than 400 specimens in the Southern Ocean, Scolecithricella minor, Gaetanus tenuispinus, and Paraeuchaeta barbata have been reported throughout the world’s oceans, while Racovitzanus antarctica appears to have a bipolar distribution, restricted to the Southern Ocean and to the subarctic region (boreal seas adjacent to the Arctic Ocean). The distribution of Scolecithricella minor and Gaetanus tenuispinus outside the Southern Ocean is based on literature records. Until these records can be verifi ed by direct comparison of specimens, the relationship of the Southern Ocean specimens to specimens collected elsewhere remains tentative, and we are unable to contribute more to the nature of these distributions. The distribution of Paraeuchaeta barbata has become clearer in recent years and can also be understood within the context of the association of this abundant species with areas of high primary and secondary productivity. The polar populations of Paraeuchaeta barbata were once regarded as a separate, bipolar species (see the Deepwater Calanoids from Antarctic Waters Reported north of the Antarctic Convergence section). When Park (1995) restudied the various populations by analyzing a large number of specimens collected throughout the world’s oceans, he found that specimens exhibited a considerable but continuous variation in size. As a result of this analysis and an earlier restricted analysis (Mauchline, 1992), body size was rejected as species-specifi c character state for P. barbata. This considerable and continuous variation in body size of P. barbata was subsequently reexamined in association with the distribution of this species (T. Park, unpublished observations). Large-sized individuals occur not only at the high latitudes of both hemispheres but also along the west coast of the Americas in areas associated with signifi cant coastal upwelling systems. Large individuals also were recorded in the Malay Archipelago and along the east coast of Japan up to Kuril and Kamchatka; these are also seasonally episodic areas of upwelling. Coastal upwelling systems along the west coast of the Americas and the east coast of Japan result in high primary and secondary productivity, which, in turn, may explain the larger-size individuals of P. barbata in these areas. The smallest individuals of P. barbata are found in the middle of the North Atlantic, an oligotrophic habitat. Species like P. barbata, which are distributed throughout the world’s oceans, may have become very common in the Southern Ocean and other areas of seasonally episodic upwelling by taking advantage of the high secondary productivity of eutrophic habitats; individuals of this species are also larger in these habitats as a result of the availability of prey. In contrast, away from areas of high productivity, few specimens are collected, and individuals are smaller in size. COMPARATIVE ENDEMICITY OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN FAUNA The pelagic calanoid families Euchaetidae and Heterorhabdidae have been studied throughout the world’s oceans (Park, 1995, 2000). From these publications, the number of endemic species belonging to these two families from the Southern Ocean can be compared to the number of endemics from three other areas of interest of the world’s oceans: Arctic-boreal (including the adjacent boreal seas of the Atlantic and Pacifi c Oceans), Indo-West Pacifi c, and eastern Pacifi c. The Southern Ocean, with 10 endemic species of Paraeuchaeta, has the highest number for that genus (Table 8), followed by the Arctic Ocean, with seven endemic species of Paraeuchaeta, and the Indo- West Pacifi c and the eastern Pacifi c, each with four endemic species. Twenty-three of the 25 endemic species of Paraeuchaeta referred to above are bathypelagic; the exceptions are the Indo-West Pacifi c epipelagic species Paraeuchaeta russelli and P. simplex. Six of the 10 Southern Ocean endemics, P. antarctica, P. biloba, P. dactylifera, P. eltaninae, P. parvula, and P. rasa, have been found in large numbers. Paraeuchaeta austrina, P. erebi, and P. tycodesma have not been collected in large numbers, but they appear to be restricted to the ice edge along Antarctica. This habitat may not have been adequately sampled with midwater trawls, and as a result, these species may be underrepresented in trawl samples. Paraeuchaeta similis and P. antarctica have a broader dis-
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Smithsonian at the Poles Contributi
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Contents FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff i
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Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries
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CONTENTS vii Watching Star Birth fr
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x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES blooms i
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xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Change
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xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES Museum
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Advancing Polar Research and Commun
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James P. Espy (1785- 1860), the fi
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ology fueled hopes that the scienti
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Meteorologists also provided critic
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visualize weather patterns remotely
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in ice sheets. The latest collapse
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Cooperation at the Poles? Placing t
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British Association for the Advance
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cations, in which the Smithsonian s
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ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he ha
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Taylor, C. J. 1981. First Internati
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24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSM
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36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VO
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From Ballooning in the Arctic to 10
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ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 19
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FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1
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National Zoo in Washington, D.C.—
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FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNW
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e rapidly deployed to South America
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“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Re
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1942). Ethnological collecting had
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group. More importantly, Murdoch’
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gan to study the question of Indian
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small museums and culture centers i
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fer of Alaskan objects and informat
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fi rst time in polar research— di
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Boas, Franz. 1888a. “The Central
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Lindsay, Debra. 1993. Science in th
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80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENU
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Page 132 and 133: From Tent to Trading Post and Back
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Page 210 and 211: LITERATURE CITED Absher, T. M., G.
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212 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINS
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Considerations of Anatomy, Morpholo
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Many theories have been hypothesize
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FIGURE 4. A three dimensional recon
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are wider and more bulbous in the a
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mimicked the shape and profi le of
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faces for SEM observation. The spec
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DISCUSSION Imaging and dissection o
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out its length. The pulp chamber al
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pulpal neurons and dentin tubules.
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Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-
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TABLE 2. Principal Investigators an
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attaching ice anchors to the chunks
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dumping of weight under water. The
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MARINE LIFE HAZARDS Few polar anima
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Urine should be copious and clear a
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Environmental and Molecular Mechani
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face (�1.8°C) are likely to pose
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FIGURE 2. Illustrated selection shi
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FIGURE 4. Distribution of respirati
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invertebrates were placed in the ba
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Meehan, R. R., D. S. Dunican, A. Ru
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286 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUET
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Capital Expenditure and Income (For
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tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; T
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FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in relation
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MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION DURING
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primary productivity in McMurdo Sou
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Non-steady-State Systems. Journal o
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Latitudinal Patterns of Biological
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and perhaps others, may have invade
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colonizing the Arctic Ocean under c
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due in part to the great distances
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and (2) human-mediated responses to
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Lewis, P. N., M. Riddle, and C. L.
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Cosmology from Antarctica Robert W.
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There they found better observing c
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TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS AT THE S
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Gaier, T., J. Schuster, and P. Lubi
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J. M. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, A. E. Lange
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370 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MART
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374 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALK
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Watching Star Birth from the Antarc
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STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATE
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is constructing and deploying the P
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Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring the
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at the Field Museum, and pieces wer
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the description and curation of Ant
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led these committees throughout the
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Index AAUS. See American Academy of
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temperature, 350-355 tourism, 354 B
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Fishing. See also Biological invasi
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McMurdo Station, xiv, 265-267, 393
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Rogick, Mary, 206 Ronne, Finn, 55 R
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U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica
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Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar

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