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UNIT 4: ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 151 photosynthesis plants produce carbohydrates. These feed herbivores, which then fall prey to carnivores, whose waste is, in turn, food for detritus organisms. Similarly, industries could reuse waste as raw material and reuse or recycle end products after they have been consumed. In this way materials and waste would move round in closed circuits. • Ecosystems have built-in methods for optimising the use of materials and energy. Similarly, dematerialisation is about doing more with less: optimising the use of raw materials and extending the service life of end products. An additional benefit in extending service life is that it creates new job opportunities, especially in maintenance and repair. S E C T I O N 5 Industrial Ecology in Practice One of the best examples of industrial ecology in practice is the case of the Danish town Kalundborg. Kalundborg has four main industries: • Asnaes Power Station, a coal-fired plant; • Novo Nordisk, producing enzymes and pharmaceuticals; • Gyproc, a plasterboard manufacturer; • Statoil, an oil refinery. The evolving industrial ecosystem works as follows: • Asnaes produces steam and heat while generating electricity, and sends some of its steam to Statoil and Novo Nordisk. Statoil, which gets 40% of its steam requirements from Asnaes, uses the steam to heat pipes and tanks. Novo Nordisk gets 100% of the steam it needs from Asnaes, and uses it as a source of heat and pressure. • Asnaes also pipes excess heat to local fish farms and some homes. Plans are underway to expand this to all homes in Kalundborg by 2005. This process of heat and steam recycling has raised the efficiency of coal burning from 40% to over 90%. • Asnaes’ waste steam and the by-product gypsum (produced in the scrubbers which reduces sulphur dioxide emissions) are used by Gyproc to make plasterboard. The remaining gypsum is sent to local cement producers. • At the Statoil Refinery, flue gas is created as a by-product of oil refining. The gas first goes through a de-sulphurisation process. The hot, liquid sulphur captured is sold to the Kemira Acid Plant in Jutland. Statoil’s sulphur-free flue gas goes to Asnaes and Gyproc, instead of being burned off. Asnaes thus saves 30,000 tonnes of coal a year. Statoil’s flue gas meets nearly 95% of Gyproc’s gas needs. • Novo Nordisk gives its nitrogen-rich sludge to local farmers via pipeline or truck. This is reported to save each farmer about US$50,000 a year in fertiliser costs. • This evolving symbiotic scheme is also being extended to water use.
152 UNIT 4: ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 5.4 Life Cycle Assessment Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a method of assessing the environment impacts of a product or service during its life cycle – extraction, processing, manufacturing, transport and distribution, consumption, maintenance, reuse and recycling, and final disposal. It is a quantitative and scientific analysis, designed to generate objective information about environment impacts. Economic and social issues only enter the picture once the scientific analysis is complete. LCA can be used to: • Develop new products and services; • Improve manufacturing/service delivery; • Provide consumers with credible information on the environment aspects of products/services; • Develop environment-preferable purchasing policies; • Improve the quality of existing products and services. Specialised life cycle analysis software, together with methodology improvements and increased data availability, is making LCA easier to carry out. LCA methodology consists of four main stages. 1. DEFINITION OF THE SCOPE OF THE LCA Questions arising at this stage include: • What will the results of the LCA be used for? • What aspects and functions of the product or service must be taken into account? 2. INVENTORY ANALYSIS A detailed inventory of: • All inputs (land, energy, water, and raw materials used); • All outputs (waste, emissions and by-products) is developed and quantified for each process. This information is then developed into a process flow chart. S E C T I O N 5 3. IMPACT ASSESSMENT • The checklist and flow chart are quantified into a number of selected impact categories; • These are then weighted in importance. 4. IMPROVEMENT ASSESSMENT All opportunities to reduce impacts are systematically evaluated.
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