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020 UNIT 1: WHERE DO WE STAND? THE STATE OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT Conservation efforts must consider the ordered and integrated web of materials, cycles, and species, and the role of individual species in this complex system. housing estates or farmland. For example, the economic yield from tourists visiting game reserves in Kenya to see the ‘big cats’ is equal to the income from 3,000 cows in Kenya. Revenue from big game hunting – tour, guides, accommodation, permits – is only 5% of that from big game watching. In the United States, 8 million bird watchers and 30 million anglers collectively spend several billion dollars on these activities every year. The first step towards reducing biodiversity loss is to recognise 3 types of losses: • LOCAL OR GLOBAL SPECIES DESTRUCTION Extinction is forever. When a species is lost, we lose not only all of the species, but also all potential adaptations that might have appeared in future offspring. Examples of extinct species include the American Messenger Pigeon and the Mauritius Dodo. • DEPLETION OF A ONCE COMMON SPECIES This happens often – the American Bald Eagle, the Indian Tiger, for example. These animal populations can be restored provided small numbers of them survive and their original habitat has been maintained. But the reduction in numbers reduces the gene poll of the species, which can lead to the loss of key characteristics. The restored population can therefore suffer from a lower ability to survive in a changing environment. • ECOSYSTEM DESTRUCTION This refers to human-induced habitat degradation or destruction, a cause of the rapid decline in the number and diversity of species. It is also important to recognise that a certain level of biodiversity is essential for ecosystems to remain functional, self-sustaining, and life supporting. It is not enough just to conserve an arbitrary collection of species. In addition, conservation efforts must consider the ordered and integrated web of materials, cycles, and species, and the role of individual species in this complex system. Not all species are important: some are ‘key’, while others play more of a supporting role. Conservation strategies therefore need to consider: • How many species must be protected? • Which species must be protected? • Where, geographically, must they be protected? S E C T I O N 1 The International Response to the Loss of Biodiversity An important first step came in 1992, with the establishment of the International Convention on Biological Diversity. This reinforced the importance of already existing international agreements such as the Ramsar Convention for the Protection of Wetlands, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITIES) and the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). On a national level, many countries are developing national biodiversity action plans. They include the establishment of protected areas, re-forestation, and the regeneration of degraded habitats.
UNIT 1: WHERE DO WE STAND? THE STATE OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 021 S E C T I O N 1 Some facts on biodiversity losses: • AFRICA Cultivation and slash-and-burn agriculture account for 70% of deforestation in Africa. • ASIA AND THE PACIFIC India is expected to produce 75% of its rice from just 10 varieties in 2005, compared with the 30,000 varieties traditionally cultivated. In Indonesia, 1,500 varieties of rice disappeared from 1975 to 1990. • EUROPE Species under threat include 42% of all mammals, 52% of all fish, 45% of all reptiles, 30% of all amphibians, and 15% of all birds. • LATIN AMERICA The region includes five of the world’s mega-biodiversity countries – Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru. The region lost over 7% of its tropical forests during the last decade. • NORTH AMERICA 728 species are listed as endangered or threatened. • CARIBBEAN Coral reefs have declined by over 20% and species such as lobster, shrimp, grouper, conch and game fish are over-fished across the entire area. • WEST ASIA 11% of remaining natural forests was lost in the 1980s, and natural forests now cover less than 1% of the land area. The depletion of groundwater reserves in the western Gulf is leading to the loss of valuable ecosystems and freshwater springs. • THE POLES These regions, with their fragile ecosystems and short food chains, represent the world’s largest remaining pristine environments. Fisheries, mining, and tourism development are bringing with them the threat of pollution and ecosystem destruction. India is expected to produce 75% of its rice from just 10 varieties in 2005, compared with the 30,000 varieties traditionally cultivated. In Indonesia, 1,500 varieties of rice disappeared from 1975 to 1990. 1. 5 Land Degradation Land degradation is affecting vast areas worldwide. This is especially distressing as it means productivity is declining at a time when rapidly rising populations are demanding vastly increased supplies of food, fibre and fuel. UNEP reports that land degradation affects 1,900 million hectares, i.e. about 16% of the world’s agricultural land, and that another 5 to 6 million are lost each year. This implies that several million acres of ‘new’ land have to be used for agriculture to offset the unusable degraded areas. There are many ways in which land can be degraded. Soil erosion and salination are the most widespread. Erosion is the deterioration of the soil by the physical movement of soil particles from a given site. It is vegetation that keeps the soil (in its natural state) from eroding. Undisturbed by man, soil is usually covered by shrubs, trees, grass and dead or decaying leaves, all of which protect it from rain and wind, and prevent moisture, nutrient loss and leakage. Root systems also help to consolidate the soil. Even in drought the roots of native grasses, which can extend several metres into the ground, help tie down the soil and Land degradation is affecting vast areas worldwide. This is especially distressing as it means productivity is declining at a time when rapidly rising populations are demanding vastly increased supplies of food, fibre and fuel.
Page 1 and 2: sowing the seeds of change AN ENVIR
Page 3 and 4: ii Foreword It is with great pleasu
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PARTING THOUGHTS 211 “Expand your
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RESOURCES 213 The following is a li
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Our natural ecologies today are in
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