Preventing Childhood Obesity - Evidence Policy and Practice.pdf

Links between children’s independent mobility, active transport, physical activity and obesity
one ’s abilities (known as “self-efficacy”), time, interest,
perceived health and encouraging parents to allow
their children to walk or cycle. 42
A number of policies and programs combining
built environment changes with social marketing have
been implemented, particularly in relation to the
journey to school. Safe Routes to School programs
were pioneered in Denmark in the 1980s as part of the
national road safety initiative described above. 42 The
program has been adopted in several different countries,
including the USA, 42 the UK, 43 44
and Australia.
According to McMillan, 42 Safe Routes to School
involve “ 3Es ”:
1. education of both children and drivers on road
safety
2. enforcement of traffic laws around schools
3. engineering of the street environment along the
routes to school.
Evaluations of School Travel Plans have found
mixed results. Evaluations in the UK show that schools
were successful in producing plans, but unsuccessful
in changing travel behavior, which was generally due
to the long - term commitment necessary from both
the school and parents. 26 An intensive US School
Travel Plan initiative that included walk/bike to school
days, a “ frequent rider miles ” competition, classroom
education, walking school buses and bike trains
resulted in a 64% increase in walking, a 114% increase
in cycling, and a 91% increase in car - pooling to the
school, along with a 29% reduction in driving alone
after two years. 45 However, there was no comparison
with a control group, changes in independent mobility
were not tested, and a limited number of the same
children were tested both before and after the changes.
A more general criticism is that while school travel
plans involving extensive activities over a number of
years can be successful, children ’ s needs go well
beyond traveling in the same way to a fixed destination
repeatedly, and attempts to restrict children to
“ safe ” routes and designated play areas may be both
socially undesirable and impractical. 32
There is a similar controversy related to another
school - based program, the walking school bus ( WSB ).
The idea was for walking bus drivers, who would
“ walk a set route, much like a school bus, collecting
children along the route and delivering them safely to
school ”. 30 The idea rapidly diffused through at least
five countries — Canada, the UK, the USA, Australia
and New Zealand — to the point where thousands of
local initiatives have been established in the past 10
years. 5,9,46 Along the way, the informal basis of the idea
has been lost. Engwicht, who in 2003 unequivocally
stated that “ in many cases, WSB has outlived its usefulness
and in some circumstances has become counterproductive
”, gives an example of over 100 volunteers
showing interest in one program in his home town of
Brisbane; but by the time compulsory training and
exhaustive background checks had been completed,
only three potential volunteers were left. 47
Mackett et al, 48 in the UK, found that children are
twice as likely to report positive social aspects of WSB
initiatives than parents, although both report greater
friendships with neighbors as a result of these programs.
Yet evaluations indicate no decrease in local
car traffic. Parents may walk their children to school
and then return to drive their car. 43 School teachers
report mixed results in lessening car congestion near
school entrances as a result of WSB, and also a loss of
parent volunteers over time, particularly since child
interest in WSB declines in senior primary grades. 9
An evaluation of WSB schemes in New Zealand
suggests that WSB may result in increased physical
activity, but actually reinforces adult - dependent
mobility, since it relies on adult supervision and adult -
imposed rules on group travel that is inimical to independent
exploration. 46 However, children and adults
are both highly articulate on the benefits, reporting
enjoying talking as they walk, meeting neighbors, and
enjoying the daily exercise. 46 A criticism of the
Auckland, New Zealand WSB initiative is the prevalence
of WSB in higher SES areas, while child pedestrian
injuries are more likely to occur in low SES
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areas. Another New Zealand study agreed that
parents report new and better friendships and
acquaintances, leading to other get - togethers on the
street. 5 Kingham and Ussher 5 also suggested that the
WSBs may increase independent mobility. Children
say that they want to walk to other places as a result of
improved fitness and knowing their neighborhood
better, and children do “graduate” from WSB, 9 pre -
sumably to independent walking, at the age of 9 or 10. 5
A r ights - b ased a pproach: C hild - F riendly
C ities and p articipatory p lanning
Child-Friendly Cities (CFCs) is a UNICEF-sponsored
program that aims to improve local governance
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