Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

computer-aided instruction 99sumer electronics have generally had to refit for CAD/CAMin order to remain competitive. Low-skill but relatively highpayingfactory jobs characteristic of the earlier industrial erahave given way to smaller numbers of more technical jobs.This has meant a greater emphasis on education and specializedtraining for the industrial workforce.Further ReadingAmirouche, Farid M. Principles of Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing.2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003.CADLAB (MIT). Available online. URL: http://cadlab.mit.edu/.Accessed June 12, 2007.“Computer-Aided Design” [outline and knowledge base]. Compinfo.ws.Available online. URL: http://www.compinfo-center.com/cad/cad.htm. Accessed June 12, 2007.Duggal, Vijay. CADD Primer: A General Guide to Computer AidedDesign and Drafting. New York: Mailmax Publications, 2000.computer-aided instruction (CAI)Also called computer based training (CBT), computer-aidedinstruction (CAI) is the use of computer programs to provideinstruction or training. (See education and computersfor a more comprehensive discussion of the use ofcomputers for teaching and learning.)The American reaction to Soviet space achievementsled to many attempts to modernize the educational system.While the high cost and limited capabilities of1950s computing technology allowed only for theoreticalresearch by IBM and some universities, by the 1960smore powerful solid-state computers were starting tomake what were then called “teaching machines” practicable.The first large-scale initiative was the PLATO teachingsystem designed by the Computer-based EducationalResearch Laboratory at the University of Illinois, Urbana.PLATO used a large timesharing system to provide educationalsoftware to about a thousand users at terminalsthroughout the university. PLATO pioneered the use ofgraphics and what would later be called multimedia, andwas eventually marketed by Control Data Corporation, aleading manufacturer of high-end mainframe computers.Stanford University also began a large-scale initiative todeliver computerized instruction.The early CAI systems required expensive hardware,however, and generally could be sustained only by researchfunding or where they met the growing training needs ofthe military, the aerospace industry, or other specializedusers. However, the advent of the personal computer in thelate 1970s provided both a new technology for deliveringeducational software and a potential market. With its colorgraphics and astute marketing the Apple II had became astaple of classrooms by the mid-1980s, when its successor,the Macintosh, brought more advanced graphics (seeMacintosh) and a program called Hypercard that made iteasy for educators to create simple interactive presentations(see hypertext and hypermedia). The Intel-based IBM PCand its “clones” also gained a foothold in the classroom, andMicrosoft Windows brought a graphical interface similar tothat on the Macintosh.ApplicationsThe simplest (and probably least interesting) form of CAI isoften called “drill and practice” programs. Such programs(usually found in the elementary grades) repetitively presentmath problems, reading vocabulary, or other exercisesand test the user’s understanding. (Teaching keyboard skillsto young students is another common application.) In anattempt to hold the student’s interest, many such programsprovide a gamelike atmosphere and offer periodic rewardsor reinforcement for success.More sophisticated programs allow the student morecreative scope, such as by letting the student program andtest virtual “robots” as a means of mastering a programminglanguage. Many computer games, while not designedexplicitly for instruction, provide simulations that exercisethinking and planning skills (see computer games). (Forexample, the strategy game Civilization incorporates conceptssuch as resource management, labor allocation, anda balanced economy.) Even more sophisticated programsuse advanced programming (see artificial intelligence)to interact with students in ways similar to those used byhuman teachers. For example, a program called CognitiveTutor, now used in many schools, can recognize different“styles” of learning and approaches to solving, for example,an algebra problem. The program can also identify a student’sspecific weaknesses and tailor practice and supplementalinstruction accordingly. These programs can teachand reinforce reasoning skills rather than just impartingspecific knowledge.Industry remains a large market for computer-based training.A variety of CBT packages are available for introducingand teaching programming languages such as C++ and Javaas well as for preparing students to earn industry certificatessuch as the A+ certificate for computer technicians.TrendsTwo continuing trends in CAI are the growing use ofgraphics and multimedia, including video or movies, andthe increasing delivery of training via the Internet. Sometraining software can be accessed directly over the Internetthrough a Web browser, without requiring special softwareon the user’s PC. Increasingly, even products delivered onCD and run from the user’s PC include links to supplementalmaterial on the Web.Further ReadingHorton, William. E-Learning by Design. San Francisco: Pfeiffer,2006.Ko, Suasan Schor and Steve Rossen. Teaching On-line: A PracticalGuide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003.Rosenberg, Marc J. E-Learning: Strategies for Delivering Knowledgein the Digital Age. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.Viadero, Debra. “New Breed of Digital Tutors Yielding LearningGains.” Education Week, April 2, 2007. Available online. URL:http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2007/04/02/31intelligent.h26.html. Accessed June 13, 2007.Watkins, Ryan, and Michael Corry. E-Learning Companion: AStudent’s Guide to Online Success. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,2004.Web-Based Training Information Center. Available online. URL:http://wbtic.com. Accessed June 12, 2007.