Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe Future of CyberspaceBy the end of the 1990s, the face of cyberspace was nolonger that of text screens but that of the World Wide Webwith its graphical pages. Multiplayer games now often featuregraphics and even real-time voice communication ispossible. With ubiquitous digital cameras, the boundarybetween cyberspace and physical space has become fluid,with people able to enter into each other’s physical environmentsin realistic ways. Meanwhile, the developmentof virtual reality techniques has made computer-generatedworlds much more vivid and realistic (see virtual reality).As more people are linked continually to the networkby broadband and wireless connections, cyberspace mayeventually disappear as a separate reality, having mergedwith physical space.Further ReadingBell, David. An Introduction to Cybercultures. New York: Routledge,2001.Bell, David, and Barbara M. Kennedy, eds. The CyberculturesReader. New York: Routledge, 2007.Jenkins, Henry. Convergence Culture: Where Old and New MediaCollide. New York: New York University Press, 2006.Resource Center for Cyberculture Studies. Available online. URL:http://rccs.usfca.edu/default.asp. Accessed July 1, 2007.Silver, David, and Adrienne Massari, eds. Critical CybercultureStudies. New York: New York University Press, 2006.Wired magazine. Available online. URL: http://www.wired.com.Accessed July 1, 2007.cyberstalking and harassmentCyberstalking and harassment or “cyber bullying” involvethe use of online communications and facilities (such asinstant messaging, chat rooms, e-mail, or Web sites) tostalk, harass, or otherwise abuse a person or group. Theseactivities may be carried on entirely online or in connectionwith physical stalking or harassment.Stalking and threatening a person has been a crime inthe physical world for some time, and similar principlesapply to online stalking. Generally, to be guilty of stalking, aperson must repeatedly harass or threaten the victim, oftenfollowing him or her and intruding or violating privacy.Cyberstalkers take advantage of the fact that there isa great deal of information about many people online.(Indeed, the popularity of sites such as MySpace meansthat many users can unwittingly provide that informationin well-organized, easy-to-access form—see social networking.)The stalker can also use search engines to finde-mail or even physical addresses and phone numbers, orcan join chat rooms used by the prospective victim,Motives for stalking can range from sexual obsession toanger at some real or imagined slight, to more idiosyncraticreasons. As with physical stalking in an earlier generation,law enforcement agencies were often slow to acknowledgethe potential seriousness of the crime or to develop effectiveways to deal with it.This began to change with the tragic and highly publicizedcase of Amy Boyer, who had been found onlinethrough a data broker, stalked, harassed, and ultimatelymurdered. In 1999 California became the first state to passa law against cyberstalking, and in 2000 cyberstalking wasmade part of the federal Violence against Women Act.CyberbullyingLike traditional bullying in schools or other settings, cyberbullyinginvolves harassment, sometimes organized, ofpeople considered to be weak or different in some way.However, the ability to hide or disguise one’s identity online(see anonymity and the Internet) facilitates cyberbullyingby making it harder for victims to identify and confrontor report their tormentors. Media for cyberbullying includetext and instant messaging, photos or videos, blogs, andincreasingly, pages on social networking sites. Contents caninclude threats, racial or other slurs, and unwelcome sexualsolicitations.In March 2007 a number of organizations joined withthe U.S. Department of Justice in a public service advertisingcampaign to educate young people about cyberbullyingand what they can do to prevent it. Some schools are adoptinganti-cyberbullying policies and programs.Besides potentially serious psychological trauma to victims,cyberbullying can sometimes lead victims to lash out,and in extreme cases, cyberbullying may play a role in campusshootings.Further ReadingBocij, Paul. Cyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet Age and Howto Protect Your Family. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004.Bolton, Jose, and Stan Graeve, eds. No Room for Bullies: From theClassroom to Cyberspace: Teaching Respect, Stopping Abuse,and Rewarding Kindness. Boys Town, Nebr.: Boys Town Press,2005.“Cyberbullying: Identifying the Causes and Consequences ofOnline Harassment” [news and resources]. Available online.URL: http://www.cyberbullying.us/. Accessed September 10,2007.Cyberbullying.org. Available online. URL: http://www.cyberbullying.org/. Accessed September 10, 2007.Henderson, Harry. Internet Predators (Library in a Book). NewYork: Facts On File, 2005.Widhalm, Shelley. “New Teen Bullies.” Washington Times, September10, 2007. Available online. URL: http://washingtontimes.com/article/20070910/METRO/109100038/1004. Accessed September10, 2007.Willard, Nancy E. Cyberbullying and Cyberthreats: Responding tothe Challenge of Online Social Aggression, Threats, and Distress.Champaign, Ill.: Research Press, 2007.cyberterrorismCyberterrorism can include several types of activities:the promotion of terrorist or militant groups on the Web(including propaganda and recruitment), the coordinationor facilitation of terrorist activities, and actual attacks onWeb sites or other information infrastructure.Terrorists on the WebThere is little doubt that terrorist groups are increasinglycomputer savvy and willing to use the technology to furthertheir purposes. Many groups have Web sites that are