Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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BASIC 39banking and computersBeginning in the 1950s, banks undertook extensive automationof operations, starting with electronic funds transfer(EFT) systems. Check clearing (the sending of checksfor payment to the bank on which they are drawn) wasfacilitated by the development of magnetic ink characterrecognition (MICR) that allowed checks to be automaticallysorted and tabulated. Today an automated clearinghouse (ACH) network processes checks and other paymentsthrough regional clearinghouses.Starting in the 1960s, the use of credit cards became anincreasingly popular alternative to checks, and they weresoon joined by automatic teller machine (ATM) networksand the use of debit cards (cards for transferring funds froma checking account at the point of sale).Direct deposit of payroll and benefit checks has alsobeen promoted for its safety and convenience. Credit card,ATM, and debit card systems rely upon large data processingfacilities operated by the issuing financial institution.Because of the serious consequences of system failure bothin immediate financial loss and customer goodwill, thesefund transfer systems must achieve a high level of reliabilityand security. Reliability is promoted through the useof fault-tolerant hardware (such as redundant systems thatcan take over for one another in the event of a problem).The funds transfer messages must be provided a high levelof security against eavesdropping or tampering through theuse of algorithms such as the long-established DES (DataEncryption Standard)—see encryption. Designers ofEFT systems also face the challenge of providing a legallyacceptable paper trail. Electronic signatures are increasinglyaccepted as an alternative to written signatures forauthorizing fund transfers.Online BankingThe new frontier of electronic banking is the online bank,where customers can access many banking functions viathe Internet, including balance queries, transfers, automaticpayments, and loan applications. For the consumer, onlinebanking offers greater convenience and access to informationthan even the ATM, albeit without the ability to obtaincash.From the bank’s point of view, online banking offers anew way to reach and serve customers while relieving thestrain on the ATM hardware and network. However, use ofthe Internet increases vulnerability to hackers and raisesissues of privacy and the handling of personal informationsimilar to those found in other e-commerce venues (seecomputer crime and security and privacy in the digitalage). In 2006 a Pew Center survey found that 43 percentof Internet users were banking online—a total of about63 million American adults. Other surveys have foundabout a third of Internet users now pay bills online. Thereare also a relatively small but growing number of Internetonlybanks, many of which are affiliated with traditionalbanks. A particularly attractive feature of online banking isthe ability to integrate bank services with popular personalfinance software such as Quicken.As impressive as it has been, the growth in online bankingmay have been inhibited by a perceived lack of security.A 2006 Gartner Research survey reported that nearly halfof adults surveyed said that concerns over the potential forinformation theft and computer attacks had affected theiruse of online services such as banking and e-commercetransactions. Gartner translates this to an estimated 33 millionU.S. adults who do not bank online because of suchconcerns. (Banks are frequently impersonated in deceptiveemails and Web sites—see phishing and spoofing.)In response, government regulations (FFIEC or FederalFinancial Institutions Examination Council) guidelinesissued in October 2005 required banks by the end of 2006to provide detailed risk assessments and mitigation plansfor dealing with data breaches. Large banks spent about $15million each on this process in 2006. Much greater expensesare likely as banks find themselves compelled to purchaseand install more-secure user authentication software. Theyface the multiple challenge of securing their systems whilereassuring their users and not forcing them to go throughcomplicated, hard-to-remember log-in procedures.Credit card issuers are also starting to turn to the Internetto provide additional services. According to the com-Score service 524 million credit card bills were paid onlinein 2006. By 2007 about 70 percent of all credit card holdershad logged on to their accounts at least once. Many customershave responded to incentives to discontinue receivingpaper statements.Further ReadingFox, Susannah, and Jean Beier. “Online Banking 2006: Surfingto the Bank.” Pew Internet & American Life Project, June14, 2006. Available online. URL: http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Online_Banking_2006.pdf. Accessed April 23,2007.Macklin, Ben. “Trust Has Value in E-Commerce,” November 30,2006. Available online. URL: http://www.emarketer.com/Article.aspx?1004323. Accessed April 23, 2007.BASICThe BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic InstructionCode) language was developed by J. Kemeny and T. Kurtzat Dartmouth College in 1964. At the time, the college wasequipped with a time-shared computer system linked toterminals throughout the campus, an innovation at a timewhen most computers were programmed from a single locationusing batches of punch cards. John G. Kemeny andThomas Kurtz wanted to take advantage of the interactivityof their system by providing an easy-to-learn computer languagethat could compile and respond immediately to commandstyped at the keyboard. This was in sharp contrast tothe major languages of the time, such as COBOL, Algol, andFORTRAN in which programs had to be completely writtenbefore they could be tested.Unlike the older languages used with punch cards,BASIC programs did not have to have their keywords typedin specified columns. Rather, statements could be typedlike English sentences, but without punctuation and witha casual attitude toward spacing. In general, the syntax for
40 basic input/output systemdecision and control structures is simpler than other languages.For example, a for loop counting from 1 to 10 in Clooks like this:for (i = 1; i
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Page 19 and 20: Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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Page 23 and 24: 10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
Page 25 and 26: 12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
Page 27 and 28: 14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
Page 29 and 30: 16 animation, computerAndreessen tr
Page 31 and 32: 18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
Page 33 and 34: 20 application program interfacerat
Page 35 and 36: 22 application softwareURL: http://
Page 37 and 38: 24 arrayIn languages such as C that
Page 39 and 40: 26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
Page 41 and 42: 28 artificial lifewriters such as V
Page 43 and 44: 30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
Page 45 and 46: 32 authoring systemsway”—the se
Page 47 and 48: 34 awkthose found in C. There are a
Page 49 and 50: 36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
Page 51: 38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
Page 55 and 56: 42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
Page 57 and 58: 44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
Page 59 and 60: 46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
Page 61 and 62: 48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
Page 63 and 64: 50 bitmapped imagesuch tasks as gra
Page 65 and 66: 52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
Page 67 and 68: 54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
Page 70 and 71: oadbandTechnically, broadband refer
Page 72 and 73: Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
Page 74: ulletin board systems 61bugs and de
Page 79 and 80: 66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
Page 81 and 82: 68 C++While attracted to the advant
Page 83 and 84: 70 calculatorthe location of the ca
Page 85 and 86: 72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
Page 87 and 88: 74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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Page 91 and 92: 78 central processing unitcentral p
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Page 95 and 96: 82 characters and stringsAs compute
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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DdataToday the term data is associa
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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296 Mauchly, John WilliamMoving fro
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298 measurement units used in compu
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300 medical applications of compute
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302 memory managementTom’s Hardwa
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304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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306 Microsoft .NETbrowser had broug
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308 Microsoft WindowsIntroduced in
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310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
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312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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314 Mitnick, Kevin D.———. “
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316 molecular computingdevice could
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318 Moore, Gordon E.only one gun, w
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320 Motorola CorporationMotorola Co
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322 multimediaa maximum of 640 kB o
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324 multitasking“local” memory
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326 music and video distribution, o
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328 music and video players, digita
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330 natural language processingplac
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332 Net Neutrality• Do not post b
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334 networkGoogle Groups, is the be
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336 neural networkwebmd.com/stroke/
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338 numeric dataselect customer whe
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340 object-oriented programmingPARC
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342 Omidyar, Pierreprovided for typ
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344 online advertisingnew structure
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346 online gamblingand agencies suc
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348 online investingThe close and g
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350 online servicesand drugs. The s
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352 open-source movementopen-source
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354 operators and expressionsOperat
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356 optical computingA more general
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PPage, Larry(1973- )AmericanEntrepr
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360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
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362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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364 PDATheodoridis, Sergios, and Ko
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366 personal computerConway, Damian
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368 personal information managercom
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370 phishing and spoofing“Phishin
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372 PHPeach of the three RGB colors
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374 Plug and PlayImpact of the Lang
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376 pointers and indirectionA point
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378 popular culture and computingHo
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380 presentation softwareDeclineBy
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382 printersarray of magnetically c
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384 procedures and functionsagencie
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386 programming as a professioncalc
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388 programming languagesprogrammer
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390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
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392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Qquality assurance, softwareModern
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396 queueIn an empty queue, the hea
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RRAID (redundant array of inexpensi
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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Ttablet PCAs the name suggests, a t
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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508 Web servicesWhen a user types i
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510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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514 Wirth, NiklausMobile Wireless N
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516 word processingto promote netwo
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518 World Wide WebBy the beginning
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XXMLSeveral markup languages have b
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YY2K problemSherlock Holmes once re
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524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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526 Zuse, Konradneeded would make t
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528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
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530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
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532 Appendix II• Users of the new
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534 Appendix II••ibm developed
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536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
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538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
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540 Appendix II• Apple released o
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Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
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544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
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546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
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548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
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550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
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552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
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554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
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556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
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558 Indexdata communications over13
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560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
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562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
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564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
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566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
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568 Indexin open-source movement352
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570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
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572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
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574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
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576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
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578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
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580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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