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online games 347sive gambling. Opponents have charged that the legalizationmeasure is being backed by major “brick and mortar”casinos who want a piece of the online action, as well as thecredit card companies, which would also get a piece of eachtransaction. (As of 2007 neither this nor other attemptsto legalize online gambling in the United States have beenpassed.)Further ReadingDunnington, Angus. Gambling Online. Hassocks, West Sussex,U.K.: D&B Publishing, 2004.Norton, Kate. “Online Gambling Hedges Its U.S. Bets.” BusinessWeek, August 21, 2006. Available online. URL: http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/aug2006/gb20060821_544446.htm. Accessed October 9, 2007.Somach, Tom. “Gambling Gold Rush? A Congressional PushLast Year Stopped Many Americans from Playing the GamesOnline, but the Law May Be Changed.” San Francisco Chronicle,July 2, 2007, p. C1–2.Vogel, J. Philip. Internet Gambling: How to Win Big Online PlayingBingo, Poker, Slots, Lotto, Sports Betting & Much More. NewYork: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2006.Woellert, Lorraine. “A Web Gambling Fight Could Harm FreeTrade.” Business Week, August 12, 2007, p. 43. Available online.URL: http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07_33/b4046041.htm. Accessed October 9, 2007.online gamesOnline games today range from elaborate war games toopen-ended fantasy worlds to virtual universes that mirror“real-world” activities, including economics, politics, andeven education.The first online games appeared in the late 1970s onPLATO, an educational network, as well as on the earlyInternet of the 1980s. These MUDs (multiuser dungeons)were generally based on pen-and-paper role-playing gamesof the time, notably Dungeons & Dragons. These games wereSecond Life is not a “game,” but a virtual world that now includesjust about every known human activity—its money is evenexchangeable for real-world cash. (Copyright 2006, LindenResearch Inc., All Rights Reserved)text based, with players typing their characters’ actionsand dialog while the changing world as seen by the playerswas similarly described. By the early 1990s, however,MUDs had spun off many variants. Many were still “hackn’ slash” dungeon games (which were also offered on AmericaOnline and other commercial services). Many of theseMUD-like games such as AOL’s Neverwinter Nights offeredsimple graphics. Meanwhile other games began to offermore sophisticated social interactions as well as the abilityof players to make their own additions to the game world,including buildings.Massively Multiplayer OnlineRole-Playing Games (MMORPGs)Today’s online games feature a “persistent world” hosted onone or more servers that grows and develops from day to dayand in which the “avatars” or representatives of thousandsof players interact with game-generated creatures or oneanother, using client software. Players can spend hundredsof hours helping their characters develop skills, increasingtheir levels through experience points gained from successfulcombat or other activities. Players (and their characters)frequently form organizations such as guilds or clans,because the tougher challenges generally require the cooperationof different types of classes of characters (fighters,healers, and magic-users).Modern mmORPGs began in the late 1990s with suchtitles as Ultima Online and EverQuest. The most popularMMORPG in the mid-2000s was World of Warcraft.From Games to Alternative WorldsHumans are social primates, and they tend to bring theirfull repertoire of behavior to any new situation. Even gamessuch as World of Warcraft or Everquest are not entirely aboutcombat and character skills: they are also about alliance,trust, betrayal, and bonding.Back in the 1980s psychologists began to write aboutthe social interactions that were emerging in MUDs andhow players perceived their virtual world (see Turkle,Sherry). However Second Life, launched by Linden Lab in2003, is not a game at all, but a complete virtual world inwhich participants, called “residents” (through their avatars)can do just about anything—play and be entertained,have relationships (including virtual sex), but also conductmore mundane businesses and meetings and even attenduniversity courses.The ability to do nearly anything also means the abilityto do things that may be offensive and even illegal. Indeed,an emerging issue is how “real world” laws apply to thesevirtual worlds. In Second Life, residents buy and sell inworldreal estate and goods, using a currency called LindenDollars (L$). These L$ and U.S. dollars can be tradedat the rate (as of early 2007) of 270 L$ to one dollar U.S.This means that residents in the virtual world can actuallyrun profitable businesses (or make investments) that can becashed out for “real” money. Further, the avatars, property,and other in-world creations developed by users remaintheir intellectual property, not that of Linden Labs.
348 online investingThe close and growing ties between virtual worlds suchas Second Life and “real” world society raises many legal andeven social issues:• Should income made in the virtual world be taxable?• If residents of a virtual world make contracts with oneanother, are they enforceable? If so, who has jurisdiction?(See cyberlaw.)• Is the virtual world itself subject to national laws,or might it eventually acquire a form of sovereignty?(Already a few nations have “virtual embassies”within Second Life.)Meanwhile, representatives of major companies rangingfrom Microsoft and Google to Second Life’s Linden Labs haveproposed making online identities and avatars “portable” sothat a person could use them in his or her online games andvirtual communities (see virtual community).Further ReadingCastronova, Edward. Synthetic Worlds: The Business and Culture ofOnline Games. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.Jennings, Scott. Massively Multiplayer Games for Dummies. Hoboken,N.J.: Wiley, 2005.Rice, Robert A., Jr. MMO Evolution. Morrisville, N.C.: Lulu.com,2006.Terdiman, Daniel. “Tech Titans Seek Virtual World Interoperability.”CNet News. October 12, 2007. Available online.URL: http://www.news.com/Tech-titans-seek-virtual-worldinteroperability/2100-1043_3-6213148.html. Accessed October13, 2007.v3image. A Beginner’s Guide to Second Life. Las Vegas, Nev.: Arche-Books, 2007.online investingAs with shoppers, investors have increasingly been attractedto the interactivity and ease of online transactions. In additionto allowing stocks to be bought or sold with just a fewclicks, online brokers (also called discount brokers) chargemuch lower transaction fees than their traditional counterparts,typically less than $10 per trade.Some online brokers, such as E*Trade, Scottrade, andTD Ameritrade, were established as Internet brokers. However,traditional brokerages such as Charles Schwab andWaterhouse have also opened online discount brokerages.In addition to fast, inexpensive trading, many onlinebrokers also offer a variety of resources and tools, includingstock quotes and charts, research reports, and screeningprograms to help investors pick the mutual funds orindividual investments that meet their objectives. For moresophisticated investors, some brokers offer simulations fortesting investment strategies and programmed trading,which will execute buy or sell orders automatically dependingon specified conditions.Online brokers can specialize, seeking customers whowant to make frequent trades but do not need other support,or investors who are interested in obtaining IPOs (initialpublic offerings) of up-and-coming companies. Somebrokers may emphasize mutual funds and cater to retirementaccounts, while others might offer government or corporatebonds, foreign stocks, “penny stocks,” or more exoticinvestments.The interactivity and low transaction costs in onlineinvesting may encourage people to become involved inhighly speculative penny stocks, options, day trading, foreignexchange markets, and other areas that are not suitablefor most individual investors. While there is a great dealof useful information available online, it is a good idea tobegin by discussing investment goals and potential riskswith a trusted financial adviser.TrendsSince trading fees have gone down about as far as theycan go and still allow for profitability, online brokeragesare increasingly competing by offering distinctive featuresand enhanced customer service. In the course of rapidexpansion, service has become somewhat uneven: A 2006J.D. Powers survey found that 41 percent of investors hadencountered at least one problem with accessing theiraccounts or executing a trade.Besides trying to improve reliability, online brokersare also branching out by offering financial planning andother personal services for their larger investors, and someare opening retail outlets where people can actually see abroker.Further ReadingChoosing a Broker. Yahoo! Finance. Available online. URL: http://biz.yahoo.com/edu/ed_broker.html. Accessed October 17,2007.Davidson, Alexander. The Complete Guide to Online Stock MarketInvesting. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Kogan Page, 2007.Krantz, Matt. Investing Online for Dummies. 6th ed. Hoboken, N.J.:Wiley, 2008.Parmar, Neil. “Finding the Best Broker.” SmartMoney. July 10,2007. Available online. URL: http://www.smartmoney.com/brokers/index.cfm. Accessed October 17, 2007.online job searching and recruitingIn the old days, people found jobs by word of mouth or byreading newspaper classified ads. While word of mouth (orat least e-mail) can still be very useful for finding job leads,increasingly both employers and job seekers are turningfirst to a variety of online sites. (Indeed, as of mid-2007 onelarge site, Monster.com, claimed to have more than 73 millionresumes in its database and 42 million job seekers permonth.)There are a number of large sites that list thousandsof jobs at any given time. Examples include Monster.com,JobCentral, and CareerJournal (from The Wall Street Journal).Meanwhile, many of the “career classifieds” fromnewspapers have been replaced by postings on Craigslist,which has a number of regional sites and covers buy/sell,apartment rentals, and other types of ads as well (seecraigslist).In evaluating a job site it is important to get a feel forthe kinds of jobs offered and the target audience, such asprofessionals, recent graduates, white-collar or service-
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)Image P
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Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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16 animation, computerAndreessen tr
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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20 application program interfacerat
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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50 bitmapped imagesuch tasks as gra
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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ulletin board systems 61bugs and de
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66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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DdataToday the term data is associa
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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508 Web servicesWhen a user types i
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510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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514 Wirth, NiklausMobile Wireless N
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516 word processingto promote netwo
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518 World Wide WebBy the beginning
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XXMLSeveral markup languages have b
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YY2K problemSherlock Holmes once re
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524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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526 Zuse, Konradneeded would make t
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528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
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530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
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532 Appendix II• Users of the new
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534 Appendix II••ibm developed
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536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
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538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
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540 Appendix II• Apple released o
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Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
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544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
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546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
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548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
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550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
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552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
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554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
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556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
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558 Indexdata communications over13
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560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
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562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
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564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
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566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
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568 Indexin open-source movement352
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570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
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572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
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574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
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576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
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578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
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580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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