Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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SSAPSAP (NYSE symbol: SAP) is a German acronym for Systeme,Anwendungen, und Produkete in der Datenverarbeitung (“Systems,Applications, and Products in Data Processing”). Fiveformer IBM engineers in Germany founded the company in1972.Although unfamiliar to the American public, unlike IBMand Microsoft, SAP is the world’s largest business softwarecompany, and fourth-largest software provider in general(behind Microsoft, IBM, and Oracle). The company operatesworldwide through three geographical divisions.Applications and ProductsSAP specializes in Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP),enhancing a corporation’s ability to manage its key assetsand needs and to plan for the future. This software consistsof three tiers: the database, an application server, and theclient. Early versions of this software were designed to runon mainframes. Other major products include:• SAP NetWeaver, which integrates all other SAP modulesusing modern open-standard Web technologies(see service-oriented architecture)• Customer Relationship Manager (see crm)• Supply Chain Management (see supply chain management)• Supplier Relationship Management• Human Resource Management System• Product Lifestyle Management• Exchange Infrastructure• Enterprise Portal• SAP Knowledge WarehouseChallengesSAP has recognized for some time that while its base oflarge Fortune 500 companies has given it steady income,changing trends in business have been limiting the softwaregiant’s growth. In particular, the trend has beentoward smaller, simpler, more scalable applications thatcan be integrated with modern Web services. In September2007 SAP announced SAP Business ByDesign, a flexible setof enterprise management services that are delivered overthe Web. However, it remains to be seen how well SAP willbe able to compete with more agile companies such as Net-Suite and Salesforce.com, and whether the company will beable to upgrade its existing large company user base withoutdisaffecting it.SAP’s major competitor in the United States is Oracle(see Oracle), which has sued SAP in 2007 for unfairlydownloading and using patches and support materials fromOracle and using them to support former Oracle customers.SAP and Oracle have generally had quite different growthstrategies: SAP grows by expanding and extending its ownproducts, while Oracle has grown mainly through acquiringother companies. However, in October 2007 SAP acquiredBusiness Objects, a leader in “business intelligence” systems,for $6.8 billion. This may signal SAP’s willingness toengage in further strategic acquisitions.415
416 satellite Internet serviceFurther ReadingMcDonald, Kevin, et al. Mastering the SAP Business InformationWarehouse: Leveraging the Business Intelligence Capabilities ofSAP NetWeaver. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2006.Ricadela, Aaron. “SAP’s Down-Market Gamble.” Business Week,September 19, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/sep2007/tc20070919_181869.htm. Accessed October 5, 2007.SAP.com. Available online. URL: http://www.sap.com/usa/index.epx. Accessed October 8, 2007.“SAP History: From Start-Up Software Vendor to Global MarketLeader.” Available online. URL: http://www.sap.com/company/history.epx. Accessed October 8, 2007.Vogel, Andreas, and Jan Kimbell. mySAP for Dummies. Hoboken,N.J.: Wiley, 2004.Woods, Dan, and Jeffrey Word. SAP NetWeaver for Dummies. Hoboken,N.J.: Wiley, 2004.satellite Internet serviceAs with television, satellite Internet service can provideaccess to areas (such as remote locations, ships, or landvehicles) where wired service is not available (see broadband).Besides the satellite, the system includes a terrestrialfacility that has two connections: routers and proxy serversthat manage the flow of traffic to and from the Internet, andan “uplink” transmitter that communicates with the satellite.In addition, there may be a connection to the publictelephone network.Each user has a satellite dish and associated equipmentsimilar to those used for receiving satellite TV, though thedish is larger and existing TV dishes cannot be used. In theNorthern Hemisphere, the user must have an unobstructedview of the southern sky (most satellites orbit over theequator). The equipment is also adapted for use on shipsand recreational vehicles.The user also has a modem (either external or on a cardin the PC) to convert the satellite signals to data, and softwaresupplied by the satellite service.There are two types of systems for sending data from theuser back to the Internet. In a dial-return system, the userhas a conventional telephone dial-up modem that connectsby phone to a hub at the terrestrial facility. Downloadingis at broadband speeds (comparable to low-end DSL orcable), but uploading is at dial-up speeds. (This is not usuallya problem unless the user is uploading large files.) In atwo-way system, the user has a transmitter that sends datadirectly back to the satellite. This is usually several timesfaster than dial-up, but is more expensive.Because of the time it takes signals to travel between asatellite and the ground, all satellite Internet systems have abuilt-in delay, or latency. Satellites in geosynchronous orbit(about 22,000 miles [35,405.6 km] high) have wider coveragebut higher latency, while using lower orbits reduceslatency but requires more satellites to provide continuouscoverage. Latency can be problematic for applications suchas Internet telephony (see VOIP).Although small compared with that for cable or DSL,the satellite user base is growing, particularly in areas andcountries that lack wired infrastructure. Users who havecable or DSL available in their neighborhood would havelittle reason to obtain satellite Internet, since the initial andmonthly costs are considerably higher and download speedsare somewhat slower. Also, the need to use encrypted virtualprivate networks (VPN) to secure business data canlower effective speeds substantially. Finally, though the satellitesthemselves are very reliable, satellite service is subjectto interruption during heavy rain or snow.Further ReadingBrodkin, Jon. “Satellite Services and Telecommuting Not Alwaysa Pretty Mix.” NetworkWorld, July 24, 2007. Availableonline. URL: http://www.networkworld.com/news/2007/072407-satellites-for-telecommuting.html. Accessed November14, 2007.“How Does Satellite Internet Operate?” HowStuffWorks. Availableonline. URL: http://computer.howstuffworks.com/question606.htm. Accessed November 14, 2007.Kota, Sastri L., Kaveh Pahlavan, and Pentti Leppanen. BroadbandSatellite Communication for Internet Access. Norwell, Mass.:Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004.Nutter, Ron. “Getting More Performance from a Satellite InternetSystem.” Network World, April 16, 2007. Available online. URL:http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2007/041607nutter.html. Accessed November 14, 2007.scannerIn order for a computer to work with information, theinformation must be digitized—converted to data thatapplication programs can recognize and manipulate (seecharacters and strings). Computer users have thusbeen confronted with the task of converting millions ofpages of printed words or graphics into machine-readableform. Since it is expensive to re-key text (and impractical toredraw images), some way is needed to automatically convertthe varying shades or colors of the text or images into adigitized graphics image that can be stored in a file.This is what a scanner does. The scanner head containsa charge-coupled device (CCD) like that used in digital cameras(see photography, digital). The CCD contains thousandsor millions of tiny regions that can convert incominglight into a voltage level. Each of these voltage levels, whenamplified, will correspond to one pixel of the scanned image.(A color scanner uses three different diodes for each pixel,each receiving light through a red, green, or blue filter.)The operation of the head depends on the type of scanner.In the most common type, the flatbed scanner, a motormoves the head back and forth across the paper, which liesfacedown on a glass window. In a sheet-fed scanner, thehead remains stationery and the paper is fed past it by a setof rollers. Finally, there are handheld scanners, where thejob of moving the scanner head is performed by the usermoving the scanner back and forth over the page.The resolution of a scanner depends on the number ofpixels into which it can break the image. The color depthdepends on how many bits of information that it can storeper pixel (more information means more gradations of coloror gray). Resolutions of 2,400 dots per inch (dpi) or moreare now common, with up to 36 bit color depth, allowingfor about 68.7 billion colors or gradations (see color incomputing).
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)Image P
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Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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ALUdown into component parts or bui
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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16 animation, computerAndreessen tr
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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20 application program interfacerat
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22 application softwareURL: http://
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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50 bitmapped imagesuch tasks as gra
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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oadbandTechnically, broadband refer
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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ulletin board systems 61bugs and de
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66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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DdataToday the term data is associa
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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296 Mauchly, John WilliamMoving fro
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298 measurement units used in compu
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300 medical applications of compute
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302 memory managementTom’s Hardwa
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304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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306 Microsoft .NETbrowser had broug
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308 Microsoft WindowsIntroduced in
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310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
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312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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314 Mitnick, Kevin D.———. “
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316 molecular computingdevice could
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318 Moore, Gordon E.only one gun, w
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320 Motorola CorporationMotorola Co
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322 multimediaa maximum of 640 kB o
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324 multitasking“local” memory
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326 music and video distribution, o
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328 music and video players, digita
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330 natural language processingplac
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332 Net Neutrality• Do not post b
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334 networkGoogle Groups, is the be
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336 neural networkwebmd.com/stroke/
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338 numeric dataselect customer whe
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340 object-oriented programmingPARC
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342 Omidyar, Pierreprovided for typ
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344 online advertisingnew structure
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346 online gamblingand agencies suc
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348 online investingThe close and g
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350 online servicesand drugs. The s
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352 open-source movementopen-source
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354 operators and expressionsOperat
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356 optical computingA more general
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PPage, Larry(1973- )AmericanEntrepr
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360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
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362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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Page 393 and 394: 380 presentation softwareDeclineBy
Page 395 and 396: 382 printersarray of magnetically c
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Page 403 and 404: 390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
Page 405 and 406: 392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Page 419 and 420: 406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
Page 421 and 422: 408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
Page 423 and 424: 410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
Page 425 and 426: 412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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Page 431 and 432: 418 science fiction and computingre
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Page 447 and 448: 434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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Page 463 and 464: 450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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Page 467 and 468: 454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
Page 469 and 470: 456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
Page 471 and 472: 458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
Page 473 and 474: 460 structured programmingsuited fo
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Ttablet PCAs the name suggests, a t
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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508 Web servicesWhen a user types i
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510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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514 Wirth, NiklausMobile Wireless N
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516 word processingto promote netwo
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518 World Wide WebBy the beginning
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XXMLSeveral markup languages have b
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YY2K problemSherlock Holmes once re
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524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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526 Zuse, Konradneeded would make t
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528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
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530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
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532 Appendix II• Users of the new
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534 Appendix II••ibm developed
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536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
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538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
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540 Appendix II• Apple released o
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Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
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544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
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546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
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548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
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550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
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552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
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554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
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556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
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558 Indexdata communications over13
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560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
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562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
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564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
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566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
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568 Indexin open-source movement352
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570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
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572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
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574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
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576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
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578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
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580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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