Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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DNS 155Remote Method Invocation (Java/RMI). While these implementationsare quite different in details, they provide mostof the elements and facilities summarized above.ApplicationsDistributed computing is particularly suited to applicationsthat require extensive computing resources and thatmay need to be scaled (smoothly enlarged) to accommodateincreasing needs (see grid computing). Examplesmight include large databases, intensive scientific computing,and cryptography. A particularly interesting exampleis SETI@home, which invites computer users to install aspecial screen saver that runs a distributed process duringthe computer’s idle time. The process analyzes radiotelescope data for correlations that might indicate receipt ofsignals from an extraterrestrial intelligence (see cooperativeprocessing).Besides being able to marshal very large amounts ofcomputing power, distributed systems offer improved faulttolerance. Because the system is decentralized, if a particularcomputer fails, its processes can be replaced byones running on other machines. Replication (copying) ofdata across a widely dispersed network can also provideimproved data recovery in the event of a disaster.Further ReadingFarley, Jim, and Mike Loukides. Java Distributed Computing. Sebastopol,Calif.: O’Reilly, 1998.Garg, Vijay K. Concurrent and Distributed Computing in Java. NewYork: Wiley, 2004.———. Elements of Distributed Computing. New York: Wiley,2002.Goff, Max K. Network Distributed Computing: Fitscapes and Fallacies.Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003.MacDonald, Matthew. Microsoft .NET Distributed Applications:Integrating XML Web Services and .NET Remoting. Redmond,Wash.: Microsoft Press, 2003.Obasanjo, Dare, and Sanjay Bhatia. “An Introduction to DistributedObject Technologies.” Available online. URL:http://www.25hoursaday.com/_IntroductionToDistributedComputing.html. Accessed February 1, 2008.Shan, Yen-Ping, Ralph H. Earle, and Marie A. Lenzi. EnterpriseComputing with Objects: from Client-Server Environments to theInternet. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1997.SETI@Home. Available online. URL: http://setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu/. Accessed August 14, 2007.DNS (domain name system)The operation of the Internet requires that each participatingcomputer have a unique address to which data packetscan be routed (see Internet and tcp/ip). The DomainName System (DNS) provides alphabetical equivalents tothe numeric IP addresses, giving the now familiar-lookingWeb addresses (URLs), e-mail addresses, and so on.The system uses a set of “top-level” domains to categorizethese names. One set of domains is based on thenature of the sites involved, including: .com (commercial,corporate), .edu (educational institutions), .gov (government),.mil (military), .org (nonprofit organizations), .int(international organizations), .net (network service providers,and so on).The other set of top-level domains is based on the geographicallocation of the site. For example, .au (Australia),.fr (France), and .ca (Canada). (While the United States hasthe .us domain, it is generally omitted in practice, becausethe Internet was developed in the United States).ADAEAFAGAIALAMANAOAQARASATAUAWAZBABBBDBEBFBGBHBIBJBMBNBOBRBSBTBVBWBYBZCACCCFCGCHCICKCLCMCNCOCRINTERNET COUNTRY CODES(partial list)AndorraUnited Arab EmiratesAfghanistanAntigua and BarbudaAnguillaAlbaniaArmeniaNetherlands AntillesAngolaAntarcticaArgentinaAmerican SamoaAustriaAustraliaArubaAzerbaijanBosnia and HerzegovinaBarbadosBangladeshBelgiumBurkina FasoBulgariaBahrainBurundiBeninBermudaBrunei DarussalamBoliviaBrazilBahamasBhutanBouvet IslandBotswanaBelarusBelizeCanadaCocos (Keeling) IslandsCentral African RepublicCongoSwitzerlandCôte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)Cook IslandsChileCameroonChinaColombiaCosta Rica
156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEEEGEHERESETFIFJFKFMFOFRFXGAGBGDGEGFGHGIGLGMGNGPGQGRGSGTGUGWGYHKHMHNHRHTHUIDIEILINIOIQCzechoslovakia (former)CubaCape VerdeChristmas IslandCyprusCzech RepublicGermanyDjiboutiDenmarkDominicaDominican RepublicAlgeriaEcuadorEstoniaEgyptWestern SaharaEritreaSpainEthiopiaFinlandFijiFalkland Islands (Malvinas)MicronesiaFaroe IslandsFranceFrance, MetropolitanGabonGreat Britain (UK)GrenadaGeorgiaFrench GuianaGhanaGibraltarGreenlandGambiaGuineaGuadeloupeEquatorial GuineaGreeceS. Georgia and S. Sandwich Isls.GuatemalaGuamGuinea-BissauGuyanaHong KongHeard and McDonald IslandsHondurasCroatia (Hrvatska)HaitiHungaryIndonesiaIrelandIsraelIndiaBritish Indian Ocean TerritoryIraqIRISITJMJOJPKEKGKHKIKMKNKPKRKWKYKZLALBLCLILKLRLSLTLULVLYMAMCMDMGMHMKMLMMMNMOMPMQMRMSMTMUMVMWMXMYMZNANCNENFNGNINLIranIcelandItalyJamaicaJordanJapanKenyaKyrgyzstanCambodiaKiribatiComorosSaint Kitts and NevisKorea (North)Korea (South)KuwaitCayman IslandsKazakhstanLaosLebanonSaint LuciaLiechtensteinSri LankaLiberiaLesothoLithuaniaLuxembourgLatviaLibyaMoroccoMonacoMoldovaMadagascarMarshall IslandsMacedoniaMaliMyanmarMongoliaMacauNorthern Mariana IslandsMartiniqueMauritaniaMontserratMaltaMauritiusMaldivesMalawiMexicoMalaysiaMozambiqueNamibiaNew CaledoniaNigerNorfolk IslandNigeriaNicaraguaNetherlands
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)Image P
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Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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ALUdown into component parts or bui
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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16 animation, computerAndreessen tr
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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20 application program interfacerat
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22 application softwareURL: http://
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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50 bitmapped imagesuch tasks as gra
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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oadbandTechnically, broadband refer
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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ulletin board systems 61bugs and de
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66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
Page 117 and 118: 104 computer graphicsthe same time,
Page 119 and 120: 106 computer industryso on). By cre
Page 121 and 122: 108 computer industrypackages serve
Page 123 and 124: 110 computer virus• What is the b
Page 125 and 126: 112 computer visionsense on the par
Page 127 and 128: 114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
Page 129 and 130: 116 cookiesunlike most traditional
Page 131 and 132: 118 CORBA“activation” or “val
Page 133 and 134: 120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
Page 135 and 136: 122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
Page 137 and 138: 124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
Page 139 and 140: 126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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Page 143 and 144: 130 database administrationsignal m
Page 145 and 146: 132 database management systemMicro
Page 147 and 148: 134 data compressionlocal network,
Page 149 and 150: 136 data securityparticular purpose
Page 151 and 152: 138 data typeswhile a list has one
Page 153 and 154: 140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
Page 155 and 156: 142 design patternsdesign patternsD
Page 157 and 158: 144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
Page 159 and 160: 146 digital cashcould be worked bac
Page 161 and 162: 148 digital dashboardThe ownership
Page 163 and 164: 150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
Page 165 and 166: 152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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Page 173 and 174: 160 document modelSociety for Techn
Page 175 and 176: 162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
Page 177 and 178: 164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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Page 181 and 182: 168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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Page 185 and 186: 172 e-governmentlenges face educati
Page 187 and 188: 174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
Page 189 and 190: 176 e-maillanguages. However this c
Page 191 and 192: 178 employment in the computer fiel
Page 193 and 194: 180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
Page 195 and 196: 182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
Page 197 and 198: 184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
Page 199 and 200: 186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
Page 201 and 202: 188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
Page 203 and 204: 190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
Page 205 and 206: 192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
Page 207 and 208: 194 film industry and computingImpl
Page 209 and 210: 196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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Page 213 and 214: 200 flowchartused to hold data. The
Page 215 and 216: 202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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296 Mauchly, John WilliamMoving fro
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298 measurement units used in compu
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300 medical applications of compute
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302 memory managementTom’s Hardwa
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304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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306 Microsoft .NETbrowser had broug
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308 Microsoft WindowsIntroduced in
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310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
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312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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314 Mitnick, Kevin D.———. “
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316 molecular computingdevice could
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318 Moore, Gordon E.only one gun, w
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320 Motorola CorporationMotorola Co
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322 multimediaa maximum of 640 kB o
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324 multitasking“local” memory
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326 music and video distribution, o
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328 music and video players, digita
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330 natural language processingplac
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332 Net Neutrality• Do not post b
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334 networkGoogle Groups, is the be
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336 neural networkwebmd.com/stroke/
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338 numeric dataselect customer whe
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340 object-oriented programmingPARC
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342 Omidyar, Pierreprovided for typ
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344 online advertisingnew structure
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346 online gamblingand agencies suc
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348 online investingThe close and g
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350 online servicesand drugs. The s
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352 open-source movementopen-source
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354 operators and expressionsOperat
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356 optical computingA more general
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PPage, Larry(1973- )AmericanEntrepr
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360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
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362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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364 PDATheodoridis, Sergios, and Ko
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366 personal computerConway, Damian
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368 personal information managercom
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370 phishing and spoofing“Phishin
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372 PHPeach of the three RGB colors
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374 Plug and PlayImpact of the Lang
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376 pointers and indirectionA point
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378 popular culture and computingHo
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380 presentation softwareDeclineBy
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382 printersarray of magnetically c
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384 procedures and functionsagencie
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386 programming as a professioncalc
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388 programming languagesprogrammer
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390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
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392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Qquality assurance, softwareModern
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396 queueIn an empty queue, the hea
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RRAID (redundant array of inexpensi
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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Ttablet PCAs the name suggests, a t
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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508 Web servicesWhen a user types i
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510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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514 Wirth, NiklausMobile Wireless N
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516 word processingto promote netwo
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518 World Wide WebBy the beginning
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XXMLSeveral markup languages have b
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YY2K problemSherlock Holmes once re
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524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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526 Zuse, Konradneeded would make t
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528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
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530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
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532 Appendix II• Users of the new
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534 Appendix II••ibm developed
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536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
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538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
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540 Appendix II• Apple released o
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Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
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544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
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546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
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548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
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550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
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552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
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554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
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556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
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558 Indexdata communications over13
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560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
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562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
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564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
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566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
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568 Indexin open-source movement352
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570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
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572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
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574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
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576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
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578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
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580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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