Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

462 supply chain managementApplicationsSupercomputers are always more expensive and somewhatless reliable than standard computers, so they are used onlywhen necessary. As the power of standard computers continuesto grow, applications that formerly required a multimillion-dollarsupercomputer can now run on a desktopworkstation (a good example is the creation of detailed 3Dgraphics).On the other hand, there are always applications that willsoak up whatever computing power can be brought to bear onthem. These include analysis of new aircraft designs, weatherand climate models, the study of nuclear reactions, and thecreation of models for the synthesis of proteins. The neverendingbattle of organizations such as the National SecurityAgency (NSA) to monitor worldwide communications andcrack ever-tougher encryption also demands the fastest availablesupercomputers (see quantum computing).ArchitectureThe fastest “conventional” supercomputers as of 2007 wereIBM’s Blue Gene series, expected to reach a speed of 3 pflop(peta, or quadrillion floating point operations per second).Machines of this magnitude are usually destined for institutionssuch as the Los Alamos National Laboratory (see governmentfunding of computer research).However, for many applications it may be more cost-effectiveto build systems with numerous coordinated processors(a sort of successor to the 1980s Connection Machine).For example, the Beowulf architecture involves “clusters” ofordinary PCs coordinated by software running on UNIX orLinux. The use of free software and commodity PCs canmake this approach attractive, though application softwarestill has to be rewritten to run on the distributed processors.Recently a new resource for parallel supercomputingcame from an unlikely place: the new generation of cellprocessors found in game consoles such as the Sony Playstation3. This architecture features tight integration of acentral “power processor element” with multiple “synergisticprocessing elements.” IBM is currently developing a newsupercomputer called Roadrunner that will include 16,000conventional (Opteron) and 16,000 cell processors, and isexpected to reach a speed of 1 pflop.Finally, an ad hoc “supercomputer” can be createdalmost for free, using software that parcels out calculationtasks to thousands of computers participating via theInternet, as with SETI@Home (searching for extraterrestrialradio signals) and Folding@Home (for protein-foldinganalysis). (See cooperative processing.)Further Reading“Blue Gene.” IBM. Available online. URL: http://www-03.ibm.com/servers/deepcomputing/bluegene.html. Accessed August22, 2007.Gropp, William, Ewing Lusk, and Thomas Sterling. Beowulf ClusterComputing with Linux. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MITPress, 2003.“IBM to Build World’s First Cell Broadband Engine Based Supercomputer.”September 6, 2006. Available online. URL: http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/20210.wss. AccessedAugust 22, 2007.Murray, C. J. The Supermen: The Story of Seymour Cray and theTechnical Wizards behind the Supercomputer. New York: Wiley,1995.National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). Availableonline. URL: http://www.ncsa.uiuc.edu/. Accessed August22, 2007.National Research Council. Getting Up to Speed: The Future ofSupercomputing. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press,2005.Scientific American. Understanding Supercomputing. New York:Warner Books, 2002.Top 500 Supercomputer Sites. Available online. URL: http://www.top500.org/. Accessed August 22, 2007.supply chain managementFew consumers are aware of the complexity of the networkof organizations, transportation and storage facilities, andinformation processing facilities that are needed to turnraw materials into finished products. The term supply chainmanagement was developed in the 1980s to refer to the systematicefforts to improve the efficiency and reliability ofthis vital business activity. Although the details will varywith the industry, a supply chain can include the followingactivities:• obtaining the raw materials or components needed forthe product• manufacturing finished products• marketing the product• distributing the product to retailers or other outlets• servicing the product and supporting customers• (increasingly) providing for the ultimate recycling ordisposal of the productAt all stages of the chain, planners must take into considerationwhat location for operations is most advantageousand how materials will be transported, warehoused,and tracked. Potential suppliers must be evaluated for costand reliability. Schedules must be monitored. Finally, everythingshould be part of a comprehensive plan that spells outthe objectives and how they will be measured.SoftwareOf course such a complex process involving a great deal ofinformation, monitoring, and decision making is ripe forsoftware assistance. Some companies offer comprehensivesolutions (see, for example, sap), but they must still beadapted to the needs of a particular industry and manufacturer.Software must be interfaced and integrated withexisting databases, management information systems, andother software. Nevertheless, in a very competitive worldmarket, enterprises have little choice but to develop aneffective way to manage and optimize their supply chains.Further ReadingBlanchard, David. Supply Chain Management Best Practices. Hoboken,N.J.: Wiley, 2007.Chopra, Sunil, and Peter Meindl. Supply Chain Management. 3rded. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2006.