Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

cars and computing 71circuits to perform calculations electronically was first seenin the giant computers of the late 1940s, but this was obviouslyimpractical for desktop office use. By the late 1960s,however, transistorized calculators comparable in size tomechanical desktop calculators came into use. By the 1970s,the use of integrated circuits made it possible to shrink thecalculator down to palm-size and smaller. These calculatorsuse a microprocessor with a set of “microinstructions” thatenable them to perform a repertoire of operations rangingfrom basic arithmetic to trigonometric, statistical, or business-relatedfunctions.The most advanced calculators are programmable bytheir user, who can enter a series of steps (including perhapsdecisions and branching) as a stored program, andthen apply it to data as needed. At this point the calculatorcan be best thought of as a small, somewhat limited computer.However, even these limits are constantly stretched:During the 1990s it became common for students to usegraphing calculators to plot equations. Calculator use isnow generally accepted in schools and even in the taking ofthe Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). However, some educatorsare concerned that overdependence on calculators maybe depriving students of basic numeracy, including the abilityto estimate the magnitude of results.Further ReadingAspray, W., ed. Computing Before Computers. Ames: Iowa StateUniversity Press, 1989.The Old Calculator Museum. Links to Interesting Calculator-RelatedSites. Available online. URL: http://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/links.html. Accessed May 25, 2007.cars and computingDevelopment of automotive technology has tended to beincremental rather than revolutionary. The core “hardware”such as the engine and drive train has changed little overseveral decades, other than the replacement of carburetorswith fuel injection systems, and some improvements inareas such as brake design. On the other hand there havebeen significant improvements in safety features such asseat belts, air bags, and improved crash absorption barriers.In recent years, however, the incorporation of computersin automobile design (see also embedded system) hasled to a number of significant advances in areas such asfuel efficiency, traction/stability, crash response, and driverinformation and navigation. Put simply, cars are becoming“smarter” and are making driving easier and safer.Hybrid cars (such as gas/electric systems) depend oncomputers to sense how the car is being driven and whento augment electric power with the gas engine, as well ascontrolling the feeding of power back into the batteries (asin regenerative braking). In all cars, a general-purpose computingplatform (such as one that has been developed byMicrosoft) can keep drivers up to date on everything fromroad conditions to regular maintenance reminders. Manypurchasers of higher-end vehicles are purchasing servicessuch as OnStar that provide a variety of communication,navigation, and security and safety features. An example ofthe latter includes the automatic sending of a signal whenair bags are deployed. An operator then tries to determine ifassistance is needed, and contacts local dispatchers. Driverswho lock themselves out accidentally can also have theircars unlocked remotely.Another promising approach is to build systems thatcan monitor the driver’s condition or behavior. For example,by analyzing images of the driver’s eyes, facial features,and posture (such as slumping), the car may be able to tellwhen the driver has a high probability of being impaired(sleepy, drunk, or sick) and take appropriate action. (Ofcourse many drivers may object to having their car “watch”them all the time.)Ultimate Smart CarsMuch future progress in car computing will depend on creatingintegrated networking between vehicles and the road. Anadvanced navigation system could take advantage of real-timeinformation being transmitted by the surrounding vehicles.For example, a stalled car would transmit warning messagesto other drivers about the impending obstacle. Vehicles thatsense an oil slick, ice, or other road hazard could also “mark”the location so it can be avoided by subsequent drivers. Dataabout the speed and spacing of traffic could provide real-timeinformation about traffic jams, possibly routing vehicles intoalternative lanes or other roads to reduce congestion andtravel time (see mapping and navigation systems).For many futurists, the ultimate “smart car” is one thatcan drive itself with little or no input from its human occupant.Such cars (with appropriate infrastructure) couldeliminate most accidents, use roads more efficiently, andmaintain mobility for a rapidly aging population. Such eventsas the annual DARPA automated vehicle challenge show considerableprogress being made: Automated cars are alreadydriving cross-country, with the human driver or follow-onvehicle serving only as a safety backup. In 2005 for the firsttime some competitors actually made it across the finishline. “Stanley,” a robotic Volkswagen Touareg designed byStanford University, won the race over an arduous 131-mileThis Mercedes Benz has an integrated navigation system—a featureappearing increasingly in other higher-end cars. (© WolfgangMeier / Visum / The Image Works)