Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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Index 559chads 175, 392chairs, ergonomic 185channels 83, 243, 290, 323chaos 203Chapel 324characters and strings 81–83in C 65classes of 88compression of 134as data types 138file transfer protocols and193pointers and 376processing 33–34, 402, 485character sets 457charge-coupled device (CCD) 42,371, 416, 493charitable solicitations, fraudulent345Charles Schwab 348chat, online 83on AOL 350community and 440on CompuServe 350conferencing and 113cyber culture and 125filtering 505in groupware 217identity used in 237instant messaging comparedto 477pseudonymity in 17Rheingold on 407texting compared to 477chatterbots 83–84, 442, 481Chautauqua 153check clearing 39checksum 133, 186, 194chess and computers 26, 84, 84–85, 427, 480Child On-line Protection Act 505Children’s Internet Protection Act76, 505Children’s Machine 331Chinablogging in 53censorship in 76, 211, 251in computer industry 108computing in 143digital divide in 149Internet anonymity in 17Internet cafés in 250, 250phishing operators in 370policy and 472pollution controls in 216software counterfeiting in445Yahoo! and 523Chinese Room 93chip 85–86. See also CPU(central processing unit);microprocessorbenchmarks for 43clock speed and 90in game consoles 205, 235by Intel 244in Macintosh 245optical computing and 356chipset 86, 101chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 216Chomsky, Noam 278Christenson, Ward 194chron 140Chuang, Isaac L. 395Church, Alonzo 86–87, 295Church theorem 87Church thesis 87cipher machines 180circuit design 295circular buffer 60circular queue 396, 397CISC (complex instruction setcomputing) 402Cisco Systems 80, 87Citizendium 500citizen journalism 259Civilization strategy game 99,103, 103Clark, Jim 15, 184Clarke, Arthur C. 418classes 88, 88Ada and 2for APIs 20binding and 45–46in C# 67in C++ 68, 459–460in computer science 109data abstraction in 129data structures and 138data types and 138in Eiffel 173encapsulation with 180in Java 254–255in Lua 286in Microsoft .NET 306in object-orientedprogramming 67–68,340–341, 388in ontologies 351in Ruby 413in Simula 431in Smalltalk 433structs compared to 67templates for 475in UML 315variables and 88virtual 88class frameworks 89clean room 4, 404–405clearinghouses 39“click fraud” 344clicking (mouse) 321click through 344client-server computing 89–90,183, 192, 255, 303, 476Climate Savers ComputingInitiative 216Clinton, Hillary 377, 524Clipper Chip 146, 181clock 90clock speed 90, 101, 119–120, 130closed-circuit television (CCTV)164, 273closed feedback loop 13cloud computing 21Cloud Nine 519cluster analysis 458cluster computing 216–217clustering 136clusters 216, 323CLUT (color lookup table) 93, 94CMC (Computer-MediatedCommunications) 113CMOS (complementary metal oxidesemiconductor) 49, 54, 301CMS (color matching system) 93CMS (content managementsystems) 115CMYK 93CNA (Certified NetWareAdministrator) certificate 80CNE (Certified NetWare Engineer)certificate 80CNET 260, 293–294, 428coalescence 302COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) 90–92commenting in 158current use of 389for databases 131Hopper and 231PL/I and 373professional programmingand 386RPG and 412Y2K and 522cochlear implant 335Cocke, John 402Codd, Edgar F. 131codec 92, 493Code Division Multiplexing Access(CDMA) 514code generation 96Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace(Lessig) 274–275code profiling 8Code Version 2.0 (Lessig) 274–275code word, in Hamming Code 186coffee shops 250Cog (robot) 27, 56, 59–60, 411cognitive prosthetics 336cognitive science 92–93in computer science 110, 391neural network and 313,336–337Papert’s work in 359senior citizens and 425technological singularityand 433Cognitive Tutor 99Cohen, Harold 25coherence 323coherency, cache 70Colby, Kenneth 509collaborative filtering 289collating sequence 82collision 223, 283, 448Colmerauer, Alain 390Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) 213color in computing 50, 93–94, 94color laser printers 382Colossus 226Colossus (film) 378, 418COM (Common Object Model) 160comma-delimited files 135command interpreter 55command processor 321comments, in program code 158commercial applications 22Commodore 228common gateway interface (CGI)80, 80–81, 249, 365, 508Common Language Runtime 306Common LISP 281–282common object request brokerarchitecture (CORBA) 89, 118,154, 310communications 124, 241, 242, 248communications buffer 60Communications Decency Act 76,274Communications Nets (Kleinrock)266communications theory 295Compaq 107, 184, 228, 237, 273,366compatibility and portability 94–95, 135, 465compiler(s) 402, 490, 494compilers 95, 95–97, 96binding in 45in COBOL 91in computer history 227in computer science 110data and 128for Eiffel 173for embedded systems 178enumerations in 184–185for FORTRAN 202Hopper’s work on 231interpreters and 252for Java 255for Lua 286parsers and 361in Pascal 362program libraries in 277Smalltalk and 433stack and 456compile-time binding 45complementary metal oxidesemiconductor (CMOS) 49,54, 301COMPLEMENT bitwise operators51completeness 267complex instruction set computing(CISC) 402complexity. See computability andcomplexitycomponent object model. SeeMicrosoft .NETcomposite, in hypertext 234composite data types 138Comprehensive Perl ArchiveNetwork (CPAN) 365compression. See data compressionComptometer 70CompuServe 214, 252, 350, 351computability and complexity97–98Church and 87in computer science 109Physical Symbol SystemHypothesis and 93quantum computing and 395in scientific applications 419Turing on 481computational biology 46Computek 141computer-aided design andmanufacturing (CAD/CAM) 64,98–99computer-aided instruction (CAI)32, 99, 169, 311computer-aided softwareengineering (CASE) 73, 73–74,200, 443computer animation 16–17, 104,194. See also computer graphicsComputer-based EducationResearch Laboratory 169computer-based-training 32, 99,169, 311computer crime 100–101, 408.See also hackers and hacking;identity theft; law enforcementand computers; online fraud andscams; securityavatars and 237–238banking and 39on Craigslist 121cyberlaw and 123–124digital certificates and 78–79on eBay 166firewalls and 196forensics in 102–103by hackers 220Internet growth and 248Internet regulation and 251law enforcement and 273policy on 472RFID and 406Computer Decency Act 125computer engineering 101–102computer forensics 101, 102–103,118, 179, 273computer games 103–104. See alsoonline gamesanimation in 16beta testing of 395in education 99, 169by Electronic Arts 174finite-state machines in 196fractals used in 203
560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic interfaces for 221Lua for 286natural language processingin 330in popular culture 378random number generationfor 399simulation in 432virtual reality as 496computer graphics 104–106, 105.See also animation, computer;image processinganimated 507on Apple II 258benchmarks for 43color in 93–94compression of 134, 203computer science in 110in education 99in games 103, 104geometry in 295graphics cards for 213–214Macintosh for 287measurement units for 298monitor for 317scheduling algorithms and418in scientific applications420–421Sutherland’s work on 4633D 213–214in virtual reality 496in Web page design 507on workstations 517Computer History Museum 42computer industry 106–109certification in 80entrepreneurs of 184establishment of 227globalization and 108,209–210hackers in 219journalism and. Seejournalismnanotechnology in 329–330computerized tomography (CAT)scanning 300computerized typography 267,483. See also fontscomputer languages. Seeprogramming languagescomputer literacy 109, 148–149,170, 171, 225Computer-MediatedCommunications (CMC) 113computer music 325–326,448–449computer platforms 41Computer Power and Human Reason(Weizenbaum) 509–510computer professionals,certification of 79–80Computer Professionals against theABM 510Computer Professionals for SocialResponsibility (CPSR) 438computer programming. Seeprogrammingcomputer research, governmentfunding of 212–213, 404, 462,472computersBoolean logic in 54dependency on 439development of 226Eckert’s work on 167–168energy consumption of215–216e-waste from 216government-funded 212greenhouse emissions and216invention of 30for modeling cognition 92pollution from 216recycling of 140resource consumption of 216in science fiction 418–419self-replicating 329switches in 295Turing machines equivalentto 97Computers and Thought(Feigenbaum and Feldman,eds.) 190computer science 7–8, 109–110,124, 138, 171, 277, 294–295. Seealso education in computer fieldComputer Science Corporation(CSC) 293Computer Society of the Instituteof Electrical and ElectronicsEngieers 404computer technicians 108computer theory 109Computer Usage Corporation(CUC) 293computer virus 110–112data and 36in denial-of-service attacks100e-mail and 177identity theft from 238Internet growth and 248Microsoft Windows and 309Spafford’s work on 450from spam 451user status and 137computer vision 27, 112, 363, 411Computerworld 260computing 313, 314Computing Research Association(CRA) 404Computing Technology IndustryAssociation (CompTIA) 80concurrent programming 112–114,154, 263conditionals 204conferencing, video 83, 322, 342,474, 492–493, 497. See alsotelepresenceconferencing systems 114–115,125, 407, 440, 474confidence factors 188confrontation, constructive 218congruential algorithm 399connectionists 93Connection Machines 461consciousness 369Consolidated Controls 182constants 115constructive confrontation 218constructivist learning 144, 284,359constructor function 88, 340consumer electronics 19, 140, 445.See also specific typesconsumer privacy 383–384container 92, 160content management 115–116, 179content management systems(CMS) 115, 132Content Scrambling System (CSS)149contextual advertising 211Control Data Corporation (CDC)99, 121, 227, 323, 461controls, in Microsoft Windows 308control structures. See alsobranching statements; loopin Ada 2in Algol 7in awk 33–34in BASIC 40in C 65in Pascal 514in PL/I 373in pseudocode 390–391in scripting languages 421in shell scripting 429in structured programming443in Tcl 468in Z3 525control unit 119–120, 120Conway, John 28, 75cookies 116, 211, 384, 453cooperative processing 116–117,155, 462cooperative programs 117co-ops 143Copernic 423, 423coprocessor 243, 304copyleft 352copy protection 117–118. See alsodigital rights managementcyberlaw and 123in data security 130digital convergence and 148of digital libraries 167digital rights management for149–150in e-books 166file-sharing networks and193First Amendment and 246hacking 219–220reverse engineering and 405copyright 245, 275, 445CORBA (Common Object RequestBroker Architecture) 89, 118,154, 310CORBA Component Model (CCM)118Corel Draw 143Core Service Technician exam 80Corley, Eric 246Corning 191correspondence classes 153counterculture 378counterfeiting 166, 436. Seealso software piracy andcounterfeitingcounterterrorism and computers118–119, 127, 220country codes, for DNS 155–157Count Zero (Gibson) 220CourseBuilder (Discovery Systems)32CPAN (Comprehensive PerlArchive Network) 365CP/Mdevelopment of 353in microcomputers 236, 366Microsoft and 206MS-DOS and 321UNIX and 486word processing on 516Xmodem for 194CPSR (Computer Professionals forSocial Responsibility) 438CPU (central processing unit)35, 119–120, 120. See alsomicroprocessorarithmetic logic unit in 23benchmarks for 43bits and 51cache for 60, 69–70chips for 86in concurrent programming113in Dell computers 140evolution of 107in information retrieval240by Intel 218, 318–319in I/O processing 242–243,243in laptops 272in Macintosh 287measurement units for 298on motherboard 319in multiprocessing 323in multitasking 324–325scheduling andprioritization of 417speed of 90CRA (Computing ResearchAssociation) 404Craigslist 120–121, 294, 348Crawford, Chris 104Cray, Seymour 121, 121–122, 227,461Cray Research 121–122, 227, 324,461CRC (cyclical redundancy check)186, 194Creative Commons 275Creative Labs Zen 327Creative Suite 3 (Adobe) 4credit card transactions 39, 146credit ratings, “repairing” 345crime. See computer crimeCRM. See customer relationshipmanagementCRT. See cathode ray tubeCrusoe 478cryptography. See also encryptionin ARPANET 145ciphers in 180in DRM 150hashing in 223–224number theory in 295public key 32, 145–146,180–181, 181quantum computing and 396in RFID 406Shannon’s work in 427Turing’s work in 481CSC (Computer ScienceCorporation) 293C shell (csh) 261, 365, 429, 485CSS (cascading style sheets) 5–6,72, 72–73, 152, 233, 507CSS (Content Scrambling System)149CTS (Carpal Tunnel Syndrome)185CUC (Computer UsageCorporation) 293Cuckoo’s Egg (Stoll) 458culture, and computing 314Cunningham, Howard (Ward)122–123, 511Cu-SeeMe 83, 492customer relationship management(CRM) 123at Amazon.com 9ASPs for 21business use of 64in computing history 229data mining in 136employment in 179natural language processingin 330SAP software for 415technical support in 470cyan, in CYMK 93CyberCash 146cybercommons 438cyberlaw 123–124, 237–238,274–275, 347–348cybernetics 110, 124, 277, 510–511
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)Image P
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Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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ALUdown into component parts or bui
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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16 animation, computerAndreessen tr
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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20 application program interfacerat
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22 application softwareURL: http://
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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50 bitmapped imagesuch tasks as gra
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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oadbandTechnically, broadband refer
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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ulletin board systems 61bugs and de
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66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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DdataToday the term data is associa
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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296 Mauchly, John WilliamMoving fro
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298 measurement units used in compu
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300 medical applications of compute
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302 memory managementTom’s Hardwa
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304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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306 Microsoft .NETbrowser had broug
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308 Microsoft WindowsIntroduced in
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310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
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312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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314 Mitnick, Kevin D.———. “
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316 molecular computingdevice could
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318 Moore, Gordon E.only one gun, w
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320 Motorola CorporationMotorola Co
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322 multimediaa maximum of 640 kB o
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324 multitasking“local” memory
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326 music and video distribution, o
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328 music and video players, digita
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330 natural language processingplac
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332 Net Neutrality• Do not post b
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334 networkGoogle Groups, is the be
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336 neural networkwebmd.com/stroke/
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338 numeric dataselect customer whe
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340 object-oriented programmingPARC
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342 Omidyar, Pierreprovided for typ
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344 online advertisingnew structure
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346 online gamblingand agencies suc
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348 online investingThe close and g
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350 online servicesand drugs. The s
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352 open-source movementopen-source
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354 operators and expressionsOperat
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356 optical computingA more general
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PPage, Larry(1973- )AmericanEntrepr
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360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
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362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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364 PDATheodoridis, Sergios, and Ko
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366 personal computerConway, Damian
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368 personal information managercom
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370 phishing and spoofing“Phishin
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372 PHPeach of the three RGB colors
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374 Plug and PlayImpact of the Lang
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376 pointers and indirectionA point
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378 popular culture and computingHo
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380 presentation softwareDeclineBy
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382 printersarray of magnetically c
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384 procedures and functionsagencie
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386 programming as a professioncalc
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388 programming languagesprogrammer
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390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
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392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Qquality assurance, softwareModern
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396 queueIn an empty queue, the hea
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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Ttablet PCAs the name suggests, a t
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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Page 523 and 524: 510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
Page 525 and 526: 512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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Page 537 and 538: 524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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Page 541 and 542: 528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
Page 543 and 544: 530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
Page 545 and 546: 532 Appendix II• Users of the new
Page 547 and 548: 534 Appendix II••ibm developed
Page 549 and 550: 536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
Page 551 and 552: 538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
Page 553 and 554: 540 Appendix II• Apple released o
Page 555 and 556: Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
Page 557 and 558: 544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
Page 559 and 560: 546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
Page 561 and 562: 548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
Page 563 and 564: 550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
Page 565 and 566: 552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
Page 567 and 568: 554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
Page 569 and 570: 556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
Page 571: 558 Indexdata communications over13
Page 575 and 576: 562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
Page 577 and 578: 564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
Page 579 and 580: 566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
Page 581 and 582: 568 Indexin open-source movement352
Page 583 and 584: 570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
Page 585 and 586: 572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
Page 587 and 588: 574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
Page 589 and 590: 576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
Page 591 and 592: 578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
Page 593: 580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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