Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage was an early proponent of the collection ofsocial and economic statistics in order to understand howsociety was being changed by the Industrial Revolution inthe early 19th century. By the end of that century, HermanHollerith had come to the rescue of the U.S. Census Bureauby providing his card tabulation machines for the 1890 Census.(See Babbage, Charles and Hollerith, Herman.)In the era of the mainframe, performing statisticalanalysis with a computer generally required writing a customizedprogram (although the development of FORTRANaround 1960 gradually led the accumulation of an extensivelibrary of subroutines that could be employed to performstatistical functions). Programs generally run in a batchmode, with data supplied from punched cards or tape.When the personal computer arrived, it wasn’t yet powerfulenough for much statistical work, although a programsuch as VisiCalc (see spreadsheet) could be used for simpleoperations. Gradually, spreadsheets grew more powerful,but statisticians truly rejoiced when software packagesspecifically designed for statistical work began to appear.Today there are hundreds of statistical packages available,of which the best known one for personal computersis SPSS. Most packages can be used to perform the standardforms of statistical analysis, including analysis of variance,regression analysis, discrete data analysis, time seriesanalysis, and cluster analysis. There are also packages forspecialized applications. Moving in the direction of greatergenerality, mathematical software such as Mathematica andMATLAB can also be used for statistical applications (seemathematics software). This category of software experiencessteady growth because the ability to analyze dataquickly and interactively is increasingly important given thegrowing pace of human activity, whether one is confrontedwith a rapidly spreading disease or a volatile economy.Other areas related to statistical computing include theextraction of useful correlations from existing data bases(see data mining) and the development of dynamic modelsbased on probability and statistics (see simulation).Further ReadingAmerican Statistical Association. Available online. URL: http://www.amstat.org. Accessed August 22, 2007.Givens, Geof H., and Jennifer A. Hoeting. Computational Statistics.New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2005.Griffith, Arthur. SPSS for Dummies. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2007.Linnemann, Jim. “Statistical Software Resources on the Web.”Available online. URL: http://www.pa.msu.edu/people/linnemann/stat_resources.html. Accessed August 22, 2007.McKenzie, John, and Robert Goldman, Jr. The Student Guide toMINITAB Release 14 + MINITAB Student Release 14. UpperSaddle River, N.J.: Addison-Wesley, 2004.Stoll, Clifford(1950– )AmericanAstrophysicist, Computer CriticUntil he became famous for tracking down a computer hacker,Clifford Stoll, born on June 4, 1950, in Buffalo, New York, wasan astronomer who had received his Ph.D. from the Universityof Arizona in 1980. (In the 1960s and 1970s Stoll had workedas an engineer at a public radio station in Buffalo.)In 1986, while working at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratoryas a system administrator, Stoll was asked to track downa 75-cent accounting discrepancy. As he delved into computerfiles, Stoll discovered that an unknown hacker had penetratedsupposedly secure systems housing secret data relating to militarytechnology. Alarmed, Stoll and his colleagues decidedagainst immediately shutting down the intruder’s accounts.Instead, they painstakingly traced him, and discovered aneven more alarming possibility: that he was using the lab’scomputers to reach other computers operated by the militaryand defense contractors. Despite being virtually ignored whenreporting his findings to the FBI, Stoll and his impromptuteam soldiered on, even planting false data to keep the intruder’sinterest while continuing to trace his movements. FinallyStoll was able to get the attention of federal authorities. Theintrusion was traced to a West German hacker spy ring thatwas selling secrets to the Soviet KGB.Stoll’s book Cuckoo’s Egg recounted this adventure invivid, accessible terms, and made the New York Times bestsellerlist for 16 weeks in 1990. For many readers, this wastheir first introduction to the vulnerabilities of computersystems.Cyber-CriticIn writing and lectures, Stoll is engaging if sometimes a bitfrenetic. He soon turned his iconoclastic attitude towardcomputers themselves, warning about the dangers of overrelianceon them. Stoll’s books Silicon Snake Oil and HighTech Heretic particularly target the use of computers in education.Stoll believes that the technology has been embracedas a panacea for the endemic problem of underperformingschools. However, Stoll notes that the technology is oftenused for superficial purposes, with little attention to readingand writing skills, while the needs of teachers and studentsand their vital relationship remain neglected. In turn,advocates of computers in education have criticized Stoll asbeing superficial and lacking understanding of what goodsoftware can really do (see computers and education).In more recent years Stoll has devoted more time to hisfirst love, astronomy. He also has an unusual hobby: makingone-sided Klein bottles.Further ReadingStoll, Clifford. The Cuckoo’s Egg: Tracking a Spy through the Maze ofComputer Espionage. New York: Doubleday, 1989.———. High-Tech Heretic: Why Computers Don’t Belong in the Classroom,and Other Reflections by a Computer Contrarian. NewYork: Doubleday, 1999.———. Silicon Snake Oil: Second Thoughts on the Information Highway.New York: Doubleday, 1995.“When Slide Rules Ruled.” Scientific American, May 2006, pp. 80–87.streamingWeb users increasingly have access to such content as newsbroadcasts, songs, and even full-length videos. The problem