Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

76 censorship and the InternetIn 2002, computer scientist and mathematician StephenWolfram (developer of the Mathematica program) publisheda book titled A New Kind of Science that undertakes themodest project of explaining the fundamental structure andbehavior of the universe using the principles of cellularautomation. Time will tell whether this turns out to besimply an idiosyncratic (albeit interesting) approach or agenerally useful paradigm.Further ReadingGutowitz, Howard, ed. Cellular Automata. Cambridge, Mass.: MITPress, 1991.“Patterns, Programs, and Links for Conway’s Game of Life.”Available online. URL: http://www.radicaleye.com/lifepage/.Accessed May 28, 2007.Wojtowicz, Mirek. “Welcome to Mirek’s Celebration.: 1D and2D Cellular Automation Explorer.” Available online. URL:http://www.mirwoj.opus.chelm.pl/ca/. Accessed May 28,2007.Wolfram, S. A New Kind of Science. Champaign, Ill.: WolframMedia, 2002.———. Theory and Applications of Cellular Automata. Singapore:World Scientific, 1986.censorship and the InternetGovernments have always to varying degrees concernedthemselves with the content of public media. The growinguse of the Internet for expressive activities (see blogsand blogging and journalism and computers) hasprompted authoritarian governments such as that of Chinato attempt to block “objectionable” material both throughfiltering techniques (see Web filter) and through pressureon service providers. Further, users identified as creators ofbanned content may be subjected to prosecution. Howeverbecause of the Internet’s decentralized structure and theability of users to operate relatively anonymously, Internetcensorship tends to be only partially effective (see anonymityand the Internet).In the democratic West, Internet censorship generallyapplies to only a few forms of content. Attempts to criminalizethe online provision of pornography to minors in the1996 Communications Decency Act have generally beenoverturned by the courts as excessively infringing on theright of adults to access such content. However, a successionof bills seeking to require schools and libraries to installWeb-filtering software culminated in the Children’s InternetProtection Act, which was upheld by the U.S. SupremeCourt in 2003.Another area of potential censorship involves the rightsof bloggers and other nontraditional journalists to post orlink to documents that might be involved with a legal case.Although the term “censorship” is sometimes limitedto government action under criminal law, there areother ways in which Internet content may be restricted.For example, content providers seek to protect their workfrom unauthorized copying or distribution (see intellectualproperty and computing). Civil sanctions can bebrought to bear on violators of copyright or in cases oflibel. However, as with other forms of censorlike activityon the Internet, the targeted behavior can be curtailed onlyto a limited extent.Censorship in ChinaChina has played a central role in the debate over censorship.The rapidly growing Chinese economy offersseemingly unlimited market potential for Internet-basedbusinesses and sellers of software and hardware. Howeverthe Chinese government’s desire to closely control thespread of “subversive” ideas has brought it into collisionwith the liberal ideas shared by many of the Internet’s mostimportant developers.Human rights organizations such as Amnesty Internationalhave criticized online service providers such as Yahoo,Google, and Microsoft for providing the Internet addressesof users who have then been arrested. The companies havebeen accused of putting the potential profits of China’s hugemarket ahead of ensuring free access to information. Generally,the companies say they have no choice but to complywith all local laws and legal demands for information aboutusers. However, critics charge that the technology companieshave often gone well beyond mere compliance to theprovision of sophisticated filtering software for Web sites,blogs, and online chat and discussion groups.The actual extent of censorship in China seems to varyconsiderably, depending on shifting political considerations.The nation’s increasingly sophisticated users oftenfind ways around the censorship, such as through using“proxy servers” that are inside the “Great Firewall” but canconnect to the outside Internet. (Encrypted protocols suchas VPN [virtual private networks] and SSH [secure shell]can also be used, because their content is not detected bymonitoring and filtering software.)Although generally not as highly organized, Internetcensorship can also be found in countries such as Burma(Myanmar), North Korea, Iran, and Syria and to a lesserextent in South Korea and Saudi Arabia.While Internet censorship can be viewed as being ultimatelya political problem, technical realities limit its effectiveness,and curtailing the free exchange of informationand open-ended communication that the Net affords islikely to have economic costs as well.Further ReadingAmnesty International. Available online. URL: http://www.amnestyusa.org. Accessed May 22, 2007.Axelrod-Contrada, Joan. Reno v. ACLU: Internet Censorship. NewYork: Benchmark Books, 2006.Chase, Michael. You’ve Got Dissent! Chinese Dissident Use of theInternet and Beijing’s Counter-Strategies. Santa Monica, Calif.:RAND Corporation, 2002.Herumin, Wendy. Censorship on the Internet: From Filters to Freedomof Speech. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 2004.Reporters without Borders. Handbook for Bloggers and Cyber-Dissidents. Available online. URL: http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=542. Accessed May 8, 2007.Ringmar, Erik. A Blogger’s Manifesto: Free Speech and Censorship inthe Age of the Internet. London: Anthem Press, 2007.