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pointers and indirection 375increasingly popular Firefox browser. For example, thereare plug-ins that enable the user to view and work withthe HTML and other elements of the page being viewed.Another popular area is plug-ins that make it easier tocapture and organize material from Web pages, going wellbeyond the standard favorites or bookmark facility.Including plug-in support for an application enables volunteeror commercial third-party developers to in effectincrease the feature set of the main application, which inturn benefits the original developer. In the broader perspective,plug-ins are a way to harness the collaborative spiritfound in open-source development, creating a communitythat is continually improving applications tools and makingthem more versatile. (The open-source Eclipse programmingenvironment is a good example.)Further ReadingAdd-Ons for Internet Explorer. Available online. URL: http://www.windowsmarketplace.com/category.aspx?bcatid=834&tabid=1/. Accessed August 17, 2007.Benjes-Small, Candice M., and Melissa L. Just. The Library andInformation Professional’s Guide to Plug-ins and Other WebBrowser Tools. New York: Neal Schuman, 2002.Clayberg, Eric, and Dan Rubel. Eclipse: Building Commercial-QualityPlug-ins. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Addison-WesleyProfessional, 2006.Drafahl, Jack, and Sue Drafahl. Plug-ins for Adobe Photoshop: AGuide for Photographers. Buffalo, N.Y.: Amherst Media, 2004.Firefox Add-ons: Common Plugins for Firefox. Available online.URL: https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox. AccessedAugust 17, 2007.Google Desktop Gadgets [plug-ins] Available online. URL: http://desktop.google.com/plugins/?hl=en. Accessed August 17,2007.Pilgrim, Mark. Greasemonkey Hacks: Tips & Tools for Remixing theWeb with Firefox. Sebastapol, Calif.: O’Reilly, 2005.podcastingPodcasting (from iPod plus broadcasting) lets users subscribeto and automatically download regularly distributedcontent (such as radio broadcasts) over the Internet. Themedia files can be stored on an Apple iPod or other mediaplayer (see music and video players, digital), personalcomputer, or other device (see smartphone). Podcastingbecame popular starting around 2004–05 and has becomewidely used by individuals and organizations.Typically, files to be podcast are put on a Web server. TheURLs for the files and other information (such as episodetitles) is provided in files called feeds, using a format suchas RSS or Atom (see Rss). The user installs client software(such as iPodder), browses the feeds (such as through anonline directory), and decides what to subscribe to. The softwarethen periodically checks the feeds, obtains the URLs ofthe latest files, and downloads them automatically. The softwarecan, if desired, then transfer the downloaded files to aportable media player, such as over a USB connection.ApplicationsThere are many sources of podcasts. News organizationscan provide regular audio or video podcasts as a supplementto regular text material. Podcasting also offers a wayfor a small news organization or independent journalist tobuild an audience using equipment as simple as a microphoneand perhaps a video camera. Podcasts also providea way for political organizations to keep in touch with supporters(and perhaps supply them with talking points). Anysource of periodically distributed audio or video can be acandidate for podcasting. These include class lectures, corporatecommunications, and even religious services.Further ReadingGeoghegan, Michael W., and Dan Hlass. Podcast Solutions: TheComplete How-To Guide to Getting Heard around the World.Berkeley, Calif.: Apress, 2005.Juice: The Cross-Platform Podcast Receiver. Available online.URL: http://juicereceiver.sourceforge.net/. Accessed November7, 2007.King, Kathleen P., and Mark Gura. Podcasting for Teachers: Using aNew Technology to Revolutionize Teaching and Learning. Charlotte,N.C.: Information Age Publishing, 2007.Mack, Steve, and Mitch Ratcliffe. Podcasting Bible. Indianapolis:Wiley, 2007.Morris, Tee, and Evo Terra. Podcasting for Dummies. Hoboken,N.J.: Wiley, 2006.Podcast Alley. Available online. URL: http://www.podcastalley.com/. Accessed November 7, 2007.Podcasting News. Available online. URL: http://www.podcastingnews.com/.Accessed November 7, 2007.pointers and indirectionThe memory in a computer is accessed by numbering the successivestorage locations (see addressing). When a programmerdeclares a variable, the compiler associates its name witha location in available memory (see variable). If the variableis used in an expression, when the expression is evaluated,the variable’s name is replaced by its current value—that is,with the contents of the memory location associated with thevariable. Thus, the expression Total + 10 is evaluated as “thecontents in the address associated with Total” plus 10.Sometimes, however, it is useful to have the generalcapability to access memory locations without assigningexplicit variables. This is done through a special type ofvariable called a pointer. The only difference between pointersand regular variables is that the value stored in a pointeris not the data to be ultimately used by the program. Rather,it is the address of that data. Here are some examples fromC, a language that famously provides support for pointers:Int MyVar;Int *MyPtr;integer// Declare a regular variable// Declare a pointer to an// (int) variableMyVar = 10; // Set the value of MyVarto 10MyPtr = &MyVar; // Store the address ofMyVar in// the pointer MyPtrIn C, an asterisk in front of a variable name indicatesthat the variable is a pointer to the type declared. In the
376 pointers and indirectionA pointer is a variable whose value is an address location. HereMyPtr holds the address 101.second line above, therefore, MyPtr is a pointer to an integervariable. This means that the address of any integer variablecan be stored in MyPtr. The last line uses the & (ampersand)to represent the address of the variable MyVar. Therefore, itstores that address in MyPtr.Examining the lines above, one sees that the variableMyVar has the value 10. The pointer variable MyPtr has thevalue of whatever machine address contains the contentsof the variable MyVar. In an expression, putting an asteriskin front of a pointer name “dereferences” the pointer. Thismeans that it returns not the address stored in the pointer,but the value stored at the address stored in the pointer (seethe diagram). Therefore if one writes:AnotherVar = * MyPtr;What is the value of AnotherVar? The answer is thecurrent value of MyVar (whose address had been stored inMyPtr)—that value, as assigned earlier, is 10.The general concept of storing the address of anothervariable in a variable is called indirection, or indirectaddressing. It was first used in assembly language to workwith index registers—special memory locations in a processorthat store memory addresses.Uses for PointersAlthough the concept may seem esoteric, pointers have anumber of uses. For example, suppose one has a buffer(perhaps storing video graphics data) and one wants tocopy it from one area to another. One could declare the bufferto be an array (see array) and then reference each element,or memory location and copy it. However, this wouldbe rather awkward. Instead, one can declare a pointer, set itto the starting address of the buffer, and then simply use aloop to increment the pointer, pointing in turn to each locationin the buffer.A similar approach applies to strings in C and relatedlanguages. A string of characters in C is declared as anarray of char. In an array, the name of the array is actuallya pointer to the first data location. It is therefore easy tomanipulate strings by getting their starting address by referencingthe name and then using one or more pointers tostep through the data locations. For example, the followingfunction copies the contents of one string into another:strcpy(char *s1,char *s2){while (*s2)*s1++ = *s2++;}The function takes two strings, s1 and s2, declared aspointers to char. It then steps (increments) them (usingthe ++ operator) so that the value in each location in s2 iscopied into the corresponding location in s1. The loop exitswhen the value at s2 is 0 (null), indicating that the end ofstring marker has been reached.Another common use for pointers is in memory allocation.Typically, a program requests memory by giving thememory allocation function a pointer and the amount ofmemory requested. The function allocates the memory andthen returns the starting address of the new memory in thepointer, so the program knows how to access that memory.Pointers are also useful for passing a “bulky” variablesuch as a data record to a procedure or function. Suppose,for example, a program needs to pass a 65,000 byte recordto a procedure for printing a report. If it passes the actualrecord, the system has to make a copy of the whole record,tying up memory. If, instead, a pointer to the record is used,only the address is passed. The procedure can then accessthe record at that address without having to make a copy.In C and some other languages it is even possible tohave a pointer that points to another pointer. A commoncase is an array of strings, such asChar Form [80] [20];representing a form that has 20 lines of 80 characters. Eachline is an array of characters and the form as a whole is thus“an array of arrays of characters.” Therefore, to dereference(get the value of) a character one would first dereferencethe line, and then the column.Problems with PointersPointers may be useful, but they are also prone to causingprogramming problems. The simplest one is failing todistinguish between a pointer and its value. For example,suppose one writes:Total = Total + MyPtr;intending to add the value of the variable pointed to byMyPtr to Total. Unfortunately, the asterisk (dereferencingoperator) has been inadvertently omitted, so what getsadded to Total is the machine address stored in MyPtr!Another problem comes when a pointer is used to allocatememory, the memory is later deallocated, but thepointer is left pointing to it.Because pointers can potentially access any location inmemory (or at least attempt to), some computer scientistsview them as more dangerous than useful. It’s true thatmost things one might want to do with a pointer can beaccomplished by alternative means. One attempt to tamepointers is found in C++, which offers the “reference” datatype. A reference is essentially a constant pointer that onceassigned to a variable always dereferences that variable and
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)Image P
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Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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296 Mauchly, John WilliamMoving fro
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298 measurement units used in compu
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300 medical applications of compute
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302 memory managementTom’s Hardwa
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304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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306 Microsoft .NETbrowser had broug
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308 Microsoft WindowsIntroduced in
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310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
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312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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314 Mitnick, Kevin D.———. “
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316 molecular computingdevice could
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318 Moore, Gordon E.only one gun, w
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320 Motorola CorporationMotorola Co
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322 multimediaa maximum of 640 kB o
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Page 425 and 426: 412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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508 Web servicesWhen a user types i
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510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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514 Wirth, NiklausMobile Wireless N
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516 word processingto promote netwo
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518 World Wide WebBy the beginning
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XXMLSeveral markup languages have b
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YY2K problemSherlock Holmes once re
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524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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526 Zuse, Konradneeded would make t
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528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
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530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
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532 Appendix II• Users of the new
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534 Appendix II••ibm developed
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536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
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538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
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540 Appendix II• Apple released o
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Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
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544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
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546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
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548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
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550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
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552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
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554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
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556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
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558 Indexdata communications over13
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560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
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562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
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564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
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566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
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568 Indexin open-source movement352
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570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
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572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
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574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
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576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
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578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
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580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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