Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

obotics 411human workers, such as in the military, law enforcement,handling of hazardous materials, and so on.An experimental NASA robot arm. (NASA photo)piece” that the robot was supposed to grasp being slightlyout of position. However, later models have more sophisticatedsensors to enable them to adjust to variations andstill accomplish the task. The more sophisticated computerprograms that control newer robots have internal representationsor “frames of reference” to keep track of both therobot’s internal parameters (angles, pressures, and so on)and external locations in the work area.Mobile Robots and Service RobotsIndustrial robots work in an extremely restricted environment,so their world representation can be quite simple.However, robots that can move about in the environmenthave also been developed. Military programs have developedautomatic guided vehicles (AGVs) with wheels ortracks, capable of navigating a battlefield and scoutingor attacking the enemy (see military applications ofcomputers). Space-going robots including the SojournerMars rover also have considerable onboard “intelligence,”although their overall tasks are programmed by remotecommands.Indeed, the extent to which mobile robots are trulyautonomous varies considerably. At one end is the “robot”that is steered and otherwise controlled by its humanoperator, such as law enforcement robots that can be sentinto dangerous hostage situations. (Another example is therobots that fight in arena combat in the popular Robot Warsshows.)Moving toward greater autonomy, we have the “servicerobots” that have begun to show up in some institutionssuch as hospitals and laboratories. These mobile robotsare often used to deliver supplies. For example, the Help-Mate robot can travel around a hospital by itself, navigatingusing an internal map. It can even take an elevator to go toanother floor.Service robots have had only modest market penetration,however. They are relatively expensive and limited infunction, and if relatively low-wage more versatile humanlabor is available, it is generally preferred. For now mobilerobots and service robots are most likely to turn up inspecialized applications in environments too dangerous forSmart RobotsRobotics has always had great fascination for artificial intelligenceresearchers (see artificial intelligence). Afterall, the ability to function convincingly in a real-world environmentwould go a long way toward demonstrating theviability of true artificial intelligence.Building a smart, more humanlike robot involves severalinterrelated challenges, all quite difficult. These includedeveloping a system for seeing and interpreting the environment(see computer vision) as well a way to represent theenvironment internally so as to be able to navigate aroundobstacles and perform tasks.One of the earliest AI robots was “Shakey,” built at theStanford Research Institute (SRI) in 1969. Shakey couldnavigate only in a rather simplified environment. However,the “Stanford Cart,” built by Hans Moravec in the late 1970scould navigate around the nearby campus without gettinginto too much trouble.An innovative line of research began in the 1990s at MIT(see Brooks, Rodney and Breazeal, Cynthia). Instead ofa “top down” approach of programming robots with explicitlogical rules, so-called behavior-based robotics works fromthe bottom up, coupling systems of sensors and actuatorsthat each have their own simple rules, from which canemerge surprisingly complex behavior. The MIT “sociablerobots” Cog and Kismet were able to explore the world andlearn to interact with people in somewhat the way a humantoddler might.Today it is possible to buy an AI robot for one’s home, inthe form of toys such as Sony’s AIBO robot dog, which canemulate various doggy behaviors such as chasing things andcommunicating by body language. Some robot toys not onlyhave an extensive repertoire of behavior and vocalizations,but also can learn to some extent (see neural network.)It is also possible to experiment with robotics at homeor school, thanks to kits such as the LEGO Logo, whichcombines a popular building set with a versatile educationalprogramming language (see Logo).Future ApplicationsA true humanoid robot with the kind of capabilities writtenabout by Isaac Asimov and other science fiction writersis not in sight yet. However, there are many interestingapplications of robots that are being explored today. Theseinclude the use of remote robots for such tasks as performingsurgery (see telepresence) and the application ofrobotics principles to the design of better prosthetic armsand legs for humans (bionics). Farther afield is the possibilityof creating artificial robotic “life” that can self-reproduce(see artificial life).Further ReadingBreazeal, Cynthia. Designing Sociable Robots. Cambridge, Mass.:MIT Press, 2004.Brooks, Rodney A. Flesh and Machines: How Robots Will Change Us.New York: Pantheon Books, 2002.