Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

social impact of computing 439Stratification v. OpportunityIn the past 30 years, the computer has created millions ofnew jobs, ranging from webmaster to support technicianto Internet café proprietor (see employment in the computerfield). Millions of other jobs have been redefined:The typist has become the word processor, for example.Many other jobs have disappeared or are in the processof disappearing—such as travel agents, who have foundthemselves under pressure both from do-it-yourself Internetbooking and the airlines deciding that they no longerneeded to give agents incentives for booking.In a rapidly changing technological and economic landscape,there are always emerging opportunities. The primacyof computer skills in the job market has, however,exacerbated a trend that was seen throughout the 20thcentury. New, well-paid jobs increasingly require technicaltraining and skills—expanding the definition of “functionalliteracy.” Throughout the second half of the century,the traditional blue-collar factory jobs that could assure acomfortable living for persons with only a high school educationhave become increasingly scarce. This has been theresult both of increasingly competitive (and lower-priced)overseas labor and factory automation (see robotics) athome. Essentially, the well-paid tech sector and the lowpaidservice sector have grown rapidly, while the ground inbetween has eroded.Sometimes jobs don’t disappear, but are “dumbed down,”becoming low-skill and low-paid. Fifty years ago, a storeclerk had to be able to count up from the cash register totalto the amount of money presented by the customer. Today,computerized cash registers tell the clerk exactly how muchchange to give (and often dispense the coins automatically).Old-style clerks had to know about prices, discounts, andspecial offers. Today these are handled automatically bybar codes and smart cards. Although the supermarket clerkstill is moderately well paid, the ultimate end of the processis seen in the fast food clerk, who often needs only pushbuttons with pictures of food on them. He or she is likelyto be paid little more than minimum wage. The impact oftechnology on jobs can even go through several stages. Forexample, skilled photo technicians have been replaced bythe use of automated photo processing equipment. In turn,however, the growing use of digital cameras is reducing theuse of film-based photography in general.The result of these trends may well be increased socialstratification. The best jobs in the information age requireskills such as programming, systems analysis, or the abilityto create multimedia content. However, the opportunityto acquire such skills varies and is not evenly distributedthrough all groups in the population (see digital divide).Although minority groups are now catching up in terms ofaccess to computers at home and in school, disparities inthe quality of education will only be magnified as technicalskills increasingly correlate with good pay and benefits.At the same time the computer offers powerful newtools for education (see education and computers).Potentially, this could overcome much of the disadvantagesof poverty because once the threshold of access is met, thepoor person’s Internet is much the same as that availableto the privileged. However, mastering the necessary skillsrequires both provision of adequate resources and that prevailingcultural attitudes support intellectual achievement.Dependency v. EmpowermentComputers have made people more dependent in someways while empowering them in others. Society is increasinglydependent on computers to operate the systems thatprovide transportation, power, and communications infrastructure.The “y2k” scare at the end of the century provedto be unfounded, but it did give people a chance to considerwhat a major, prolonged failure in the information infrastructurewould mean for maintaining the physical necessitiesof life, the viability of the economy, and the cohesionof society itself (see Y2K problem). The terrorist attacks ofSeptember 11, 2001, brought to greater public awarenessthe concerns about “cyberterrorism” that experts had beendebating since the late 1990s. (See cyberterrorism.)At the same time, computers—and particularly theInternet—have give individuals a greater feeling of empowermentin many respects. The savvy Web user now hasnumerous ways to shop for everything from airline ticketsto Viagra pills at prices that reflect disintermediation—the elimination of the middleman. Many people are lessinclined to take the word of traditional authority figures(such as doctors) and instead are tapping into the sort ofinformation that had been previously been accessible onlyto professionals. However, access to information is not thesame thing as having the necessary background and skillsto evaluate that information. Whether falling victim to anoutright scam or simply not fully understanding the consequencesof a decision, the Web user finds little in the wayof a regulatory safety net. The tension between the highdegree of regulation now existing in much of our societyand the frontierlike qualities of cyberspace will no doubt bea major theme in the next few decades.Centralization v. DemocracyWith new forms of media technology (such as radio andtelevision in the 20th century), early innovators and experimentershave considerable freedom to experiment andexpress themselves. This freedom is largely the result oflack of pressure from powerful economic interests whilethe new technology is largely still “under the radar.” However,as a technology matures, large corporate interests tendto consolidate the market, leaving fewer opportunities forsmaller, independent operators.By the late 1990s there was some concern that theInternet and World Wide Web were entering such a consolidationstage in the wake of such developments as theAOL/Time-Warner merger. However, while there are nowlarge corporate presences online, the diversity of the meansof expression has actually increased (see blogs and blogging,user-created content, wikis and Wikipedia, andYouTube). Further, the influence of activist groups hasincreased to the point where any serious political campaigngives high priority to its Internet presence and the cultivationof influential bloggers (see political activism andthe Internet).