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music and video players, digital 327had paid for any online video content. This may graduallychange, particularly as more users move from basicbroadband connections to enhanced, higher-speed ones(see broadband). Already video sales through iTunes andAmazon’s new Unbox (and smaller services) are expectedby Forrester Research to generate $279 million in revenuefor 2007. However, some analysts believe that the businessmodel for selling video will soon shift to something morelike that of premium cable channels, with streaming videoavailable by subscription.Further ReadingArnie Street. Available online. URL: http://amiestreet.com/.Accessed October 3, 2007.Bove, Tony, and Cheryl Rhodes. iPod & iTunes for Dummies. 5thed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2007.eListeningPost. Available online. URL: http://elisteningpost.com/.Accessed October 3, 2007.iTunes. Available online. URL: http://www.apple.com/itunes/store.Accessed October 3, 2007.Madden, Mary. “Artists, Musicians, and the Internet.” Pew Internet& American Life Project, December 5, 2004. Availableonline. URL: http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Artists.Musicians_Report.pdf. Accessed October 3, 2007.———. “Online Video.” Pew Internet & American Life Project,July 25, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Online_Video_2007.pdf.Accessed October3, 2007Madden, Mary, and Lee Rainie. “Music and Video DownloadingMoves beyond P2P.” Pew Internet & American Life Project,March 2005. Available online. URL: http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Filesharing_March05.pdf. Accessed October 3,2007.Muchmore, Michael. “New Ways to Get Music.” ExtremeTech.,December 10, 2006. Available online. URL: http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,1697,2070636,00.asp. AccessedOctober 3, 2007.Rhapsody. Available online. URL: http://www.rhapsody.com/home.html. Accessed October 3, 2007.• creates a music library that can be searched or reorganized• can create playlists and queues and can play backsongs in order, shuffled (randomized), or according toother preferences• can obtain additional information about media(tracks, albums, and so on) onlinePortable PlayersFirst unveiled in 2001, the Apple iPod is the best-sellingexample of a portable media player (often called a “digitalaudio player”). Its compact, stylish design and simple userinterface quickly caught on, even though the first model wasonly compatible with the Macintosh and it used Apple’s AACformat rather than MP3. Later iPods added capacity, largerscreens, and features (such as being able to play video), whileApple also offered the inexpensive iPod Shuffle. A competitoris the Microsoft Zune player and music store, which, however,as of mid-2007 had made little headway against marketleader Apple. A third well-reviewed choice is the CreativeLabs Zen series. A variety of other portable players are available.Higher capacity units use tiny hard drives (up to 160 GBcapacity or so), while smaller capacity models use flash memory(2–32 GB) instead. A variety of other handheld devicescan play music and video (see PDA and smartphone).With the ubiquitous use of iPods and other players,particularly by young people, some health and safety concernshave been raised. If played too loudly for long periodsof time through headphones or earbuds, the devices maycause hearing damage. Drivers and pedestrians may also bemusic and video players, digitalOne characteristic of the rapidly evolving digital worldis the ability to play a variety of media (music, photos,video) on many devices, ranging from desktop PCs to smartphones and, of course, iPods and MP3 players (see digitalconvergence). The ability to organize and play mediarequires suitable software and hardware.On desktop and laptop PCs, media-playing software isavailable for all operating systems. Examples include WindowsMedia Player, Apple iTunes, and RealPlayer (whichalso has a Linux version). This software typically includesthese features:• plays most types of media files (see graphics formatsand sound file formats)• plays content on CD/DVD, files on the hard drive, orcontent being received directly from the Internet (seeCD-Rom and DVD-ROM; music and video distribution,online; and streaming)• controls are modeled on those found on DVD players,with customizable appearanceThe Apple iPod is the most popular portable digital media player,featuring a simple, effective interface and the ability to play musicand show video. (Apple Corporation)
328 music and video players, digitalat greater risk if the music they are listening to cuts off thesound of approaching vehicles.Further ReadingJohnson, Brian. Zune for Dummies. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2007.Kelby, Scott. The iPod Book: Doing Cool Stuff with the iPod and theiTunes Store. 3rd. ed. Berkeley, Calif.: Peachpit Press, 2006.MP3 Players (CNet Reviews). Available online. URL: http://reviews.cnet.com/Music/2001-6450_7-0.html. Accessed October 3,2007.“MP3 Players: The Basics and History.” Available online. URL:http://www.mp3playerlimelight.com/. Accessed October 3,2007.Rathbone, Andy. MP3 for Dummies. New York: Hungry Minds,2001.
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)Image P
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Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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16 animation, computerAndreessen tr
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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20 application program interfacerat
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22 application softwareURL: http://
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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50 bitmapped imagesuch tasks as gra
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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oadbandTechnically, broadband refer
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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ulletin board systems 61bugs and de
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66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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DdataToday the term data is associa
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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Page 307 and 308: 294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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Page 317 and 318: 304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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Page 323 and 324: 310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
Page 325 and 326: 312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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Page 329 and 330: 316 molecular computingdevice could
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Page 373 and 374: 360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
Page 375 and 376: 362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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378 popular culture and computingHo
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380 presentation softwareDeclineBy
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382 printersarray of magnetically c
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384 procedures and functionsagencie
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386 programming as a professioncalc
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388 programming languagesprogrammer
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390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
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392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Qquality assurance, softwareModern
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396 queueIn an empty queue, the hea
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RRAID (redundant array of inexpensi
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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Ttablet PCAs the name suggests, a t
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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508 Web servicesWhen a user types i
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510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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514 Wirth, NiklausMobile Wireless N
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516 word processingto promote netwo
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518 World Wide WebBy the beginning
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XXMLSeveral markup languages have b
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YY2K problemSherlock Holmes once re
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524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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526 Zuse, Konradneeded would make t
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528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
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530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
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532 Appendix II• Users of the new
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534 Appendix II••ibm developed
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536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
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538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
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540 Appendix II• Apple released o
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Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
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544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
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546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
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548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
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550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
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552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
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554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
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556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
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558 Indexdata communications over13
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560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
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562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
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564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
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566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
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568 Indexin open-source movement352
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570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
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572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
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574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
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576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
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578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
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580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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