Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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Index 557Asymetrix Toolbook 32asymmetric multiprocessing 323asynchronous JavaScript and XML(Ajax) 5–6, 6, 110asynchronous processes 154ATA (Advanced TechnologyAttachment) 223Atanasoff, John Vincent 30, 226,297Atanasoff-Berry computer (ABC)30, 297Atari 104, 179, 205, 258, 264Atkinson, Bill 322ATM. See automatic teller machinesAtom 413AT&T 473, 477–478, 486. See alsoBell Laboratoriesattachments 111, 134, 177, 193attenuation 191Attila (robot) 56AT (Advanced Technology)machine 62attributes 191, 201, 232auctions, online 31, 100, 120, 343.See also eBayAuctionWeb 165, 343Audio Interchange File Format(AIFF) 448auditing in data processing 31, 130AU format 448Augmentation Research Center182augmented finite state machines 59“Augmenting Human Intellect:A Conceptual Framework”(Engelbart) 182authentication 31–32, 39, 146, 181authoring systems 32automata 196, 410. See also cellularautomata“Automata Studies” (Shannon andMcCarthy) 427automated cars 71–72automated clearing house (ACH)39Automatically Programmed Tool(APT) 98Automatic Computing Engine(ACE) 481automatic programming 33automatic tabulating machine 229,230, 294, 341, 392automatic teller machines (ATM)authentication at 32in banking 39biometrics used with 48–49real-time processing in 400as terminal 476touchscreens in 478transaction processing in478–479automotive computers 71, 71–72,177, 293avatars 237–238, 348awk 33–34, 83, 365, 485–486AWT (Abstract WindowingToolkit) 254axioms, in Prolog 390BBabbage, Charles 35–36, 36analog computer of 226mechanical computer of 294memory and 301printer design by 381punched cards and 392on statistics 458Babel Fish 271back door, in Clipper Chip 146,181background process. See demonbackup and archive systems 36–37in auditing 31in content managementsystems 116copy protection and 117, 150in database administration130–131in disaster planning andrecovery 152as fair use 246fault tolerance with 189floppy disks and 200in libraries 276outsourcing of 108tape for 467Backus, John W. 38, 202, 404Backus-Naur form (BNF) 38, 38,110, 278backward chaining 188Baker, Nicholas 276Ballistic Research Laboratory 167ballots 175bandwidth 38, 298, 335. See alsobroadbandBankers Trust 44banking and computers 39biometrics used in 48–49identity theft and 238investing 348personal software for 195phishing and 370smart card in 435terrorism against 127Bank of America 370, 509banner ads 344Bardeen, John 42, 85, 404Bard’s Tale, The (game) 174Barlow, John Perry 123, 124BarnesandNoble.com 349Bartik, Jean 515BASH (Bourne Again Shell) 429BASIC 39–40classes and 88games in 103Gates and 305graphics in 105, 105as interpreter 252loop in 285–286Microsoft and 305parsing 360in personal computers 228procedures in 384–385strings in 82basic input/output system (BIOS)49–50, 54, 236, 319, 405Bateson, Gregory 124battle management 311baud 298Baudot character set 265Bayes, Thomas 40Bayesian analysis 40–41, 270BBN (Bolt Beranek and Newman)247, 277, 284, 404BBS. See bulletin board systemsbeams 493–494Beesley, Angela 500behavioral biometrics 48Being Digital (Negroponte) 331Bell, C. Gordon (Bennet) 41–42Bell Laboratories 42art research at 25C++ at 67charged-couple device at 371government funding of 212research of 404Ritchie at 409Shannon at 427Stroustrup at 459telecommunications and 473UNIX and 486Bell’s Law of Computer Classes 41benchmark 43Bendix 227Benford, Gregory 28Bense, Max 25Beowulf clusters 217, 462Berkeley, Edmund 463Berkeley Open Infrastructure forNetwork Computing (BOINC)117Berkeley Software Distribution(BSD) 261, 486Berners-Lee, Tim 43–44in computer history 229Dertouzos and 141as entrepreneur 184HTML invented by 232in Internet growth 247semantic Web and 424on user-created content 487in World Wide Webdevelopment 518Bernstein, Daniel 125, 181, 246Berry, Clifford E. 30Bertillon, Alphonse 47best fit algorithm 302beta testing 395Better Business Bureau 345Bezos, Jeffrey P. 8, 44, 44–45, 184Bigelow, Julian 510Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation207Billings, John Shaw 229bill payment, online 39Billpoint 146–147Bina, Eric 15BINAC 167, 296, 381binary data 128, 225binary search 448binary tree 479binding 45–46bins 223biodiversity, measuring 46bioinformatics 46–47, 110, 136, 179biology and computing 75biometrics 27, 47–49, 48for authentication 32employment in 179in flash drives 198in law enforcement 273military use of 310pattern recognition in 363with smart cards 436BIOS (Basic Input-Output System)49–50, 54, 236, 319, 405biotechnology 262bird flight 75BISON 361bitmapped fonts 201bitmapped image 50, 50, 81, 214bits 50–51, 51, 52, 204, 298BitTorrent 193, 413bitwise operations 51–52, 54black, in CYMK 93BlackBerry 220, 364, 437black box testing 395blacklists 370blindness 151block-structured languages 491Blogger.com 52, 211Bloglines 52blogs and blogging 52–53advertising in 344censorship of 76in cyberbullying 126on eBay 166freedom of speech for 125Google in 211hypertext in 234in Internet growth 248as journalism 259netiquette in 332in office automation 342political activism and 377RSS for 412user-created content of 487World Wide Web and 518blue, in RGB 93Blue Gene 462Blue Origin 45Bluetooth 53, 273, 299, 487, 513Blu-ray 75, 205, 446BMP (Windows bitmap) 214BNF (Backus-Naur form) 38, 38,110, 278board games 103body language, in robots 56–57boids 28BOINC (Berkeley OpenInfrastructure for NetworkComputing) 117Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN)247, 277, 284, 404Bomis 500Boneh, Dan 317bookmarks 234, 374books, technical 471bookstore, online. See Amazon.comBoole, George 40, 53–54Boolean bitwise operators 51Boolean data type 138Boolean operators 53–54in branching statements 55Differential Analyzer and426with flags 197for information retrieval 240in searching 422–423in switched computers 295Boot Camp 19, 288booting 353boot sequence 54–55Bootstrap Institute 182Borland 20Borland Sidekick 368Bosack, Leo 87botnet 100, 111, 451bots. See software agentsbound port 303bounds, of arrays 24Bourne, Steven R. 429Bourne Again Shell (BASH) 429Bourne Shell 429, 485Boyer, Amy 126bragging rights 100Braille 151brain implants 336BrainKeeper 511Brainstorms Community 407branching statements 55Boolean operators in 54in C 65in COBOL 91in error handling 187in flowcharts 200functional languages and 204in PL/I 373in procedural languages 388in structured programming460Brand, Stewart 407Brattain, Walter 42, 85, 404breakpoint 61Breazeal, Cynthia 27, 56, 56–57, 60Bricklin, Daniel 366, 452Brief Code 297Brin, David 384Brin, Sergey 57, 210, 358broadband 57–59. See also cablemodem; DSL; satellite Internetservicewith AOL 12cable modems for 69
558 Indexdata communications over133in digital divide 149for distance education153–154fiber optic cable for 191firewalls and 196, 197in Internet growth 248ISPs for 252modems and 316net neutrality and 332office applications over 107packet-sniffing and 100streaming and 459telecommunications and 473for videoconferencing 492video distribution and 327for VoIP 497Web page design and 507broadcast journalism 259–260Brooks, Frederick 386Brooks, Rodney 27, 56, 59–60,253, 289, 475browser. See Web browserbrowser history, Ajax pages and 6“brute force” strategy 84–85BSD (Berkeley SoftwareDistribution) UNIX 261, 486bubble sort 447, 447Buckimaster, Jim 120buddy system 302budgeting software 195buffering 60. See also queuein data acquisition 130for graphics display 105in I/O processing 243overflows in 60pointers for 376queue in 396in streaming 459in tape drives 467in video capture 493bugs and debugging 61in C 66CASE tools for 74in compiling 96data and, threat to 36dynamic binding and 46error handling and 186in programming environment388quality assurance and 394risk of 408technical support and 470bulletin board systems (BBS)61–62on ARPANET 247in computer history 228conferencing systems and114cultures of 125cyberspace and 125early use of 11in Internet development 247Rheingold and 407as social networking 440for technical support 470bullet train 408bullying 126bump mapping 106Burks, Arthur 499“Burning Chrome” (Gibson) 419Burroughs 459Burroughs, William 70bus 62, 62–63bits and 51in boot sequence 54in chipset 86clock speed and 90CPU and 304in Ethernet network 283for graphics cards 214in IBM PC 236for I/O processing 242–243for modem 316on motherboard 319in multiprocessing 323in personal computers 228Bush, Vannevar 13, 63, 182, 212,233Bushnell, Nolan 258business applications of computers63–64. See also application suiteblogging in 53in disaster planning andrecovery 152enterprise computing183–184ergonomics and 185financial software and 195groupware in 217Macintosh and 287management informationsystems for 291–292mashups 294online advertising 344–345PCs 366personal informationmanagers 368portals 379project management software389–390SAP software in 415software installation and 244supply chain management462surveillance 383text in 81Web filters 505Business Objects 415Business Software Alliance 445bus mastering 62bus snooping 323“Buy It Now” 165byte 50–51, 51, 52, 204, 298byte code 19, 95, 253Byte magazine 260, 366CC (language) 65–66BASIC and 40bitwise operator symbolsin 52branching statements in 55commenting in 158in computer history 228C shell and 429current use of 389development of 42, 404, 410enumerations in 184–185functions in 385logic errors in 61macros in 288numeric data in 338Pascal and 363Perl and 365PL/I and 374pointers in 375–376porting to C++ 68procedures in 385professional programmingwith 386program libraries in 276recursion in 401strings in 82syntax errors in 61variables in 490, 491viability of 389C# (language) 66, 307C++ (language) 67–69classes in 88commenting in 158compiling 96in computer history 228development of 459–460Eiffel and 173–174enumerations in 184–185error handling in 187inheritance in 340for Internet applicationsprogramming 249Java and 255in Microsoft Windows 309operators in 341Pascal and 363pointers in 376–377procedures in 385program libraries in 276Simula and 431cable modem 38, 58, 69, 162–163,299cache 69–70buffering and 60in chipset 86in client-server computing89in computer engineering 101CPU and 304, 305development of 10for file server 192for hard disks 223in information retrieval 240memory for 301in multiprocessing 323in Web browsers 503CAD/CAM (computer-aided designand manufacturing) 64, 98–99CAI (computer-aided instruction)32, 99, 169, 311calculation speed 298calculator 5, 70–71, 341, 392. Seealso mechanical calculatorcalendaring, in groupware 217call. See procedurescamcorders, digital 372, 446camera-ready copy 142cameras 108, 223, 371–372. Seealso photography, digitalcamouflage 203Campbell, John W. 418cancelbots 451Canion, Rod 184CAN-SPAM Act 370, 451capacitive touchscreens 478capacitors 30Čapek, Carl 410, 418carbon dioxide emissions 216card readers. See punched cardsand paper tapeCareerJournal 348Carnegie Mellon HumanComputation 117Carnegie Mellon University 403Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS)185cars and computing 71, 71–72,177, 293cartography 208–209cartridge drives 37, 258, 467,467–468cascading style sheets (CSS) 5–6,72, 72–73, 152, 233, 507case. See branching statementsCASE (computer-aided softwareengineering) 73, 73–74, 200,443Case, Steve 11, 12, 350case statement 55cash, digital 146–147Casino City 346cassette tape 37, 258, 467, 467–468CAT (computerized tomography)scanning 300cataloging, library 275Cate, Fred H. 383cathode ray tube (CRT)in defense computingprojects 212for graphics 104, 105as memory 301in monitors 199, 317for terminals 476CB Simulator 350CBT (computer-aided instruction)32, 99, 169, 311CCM (CORBA Component Model)118CCP (Certified ComputingProfessional) certificate 80CCTV (closed-circuit television)164, 273CDC (Control Data Corporation)99, 121, 227, 323, 461CD copy protection 149–150CDMA (Code DivisionMultiplexing Access) 514CD-ROM and DVD-ROM 74, 74–75in boot sequence 55for data backup 37, 200in game consoles 205in laptops 272lasers for 356multimedia and 322for music files 449reusable media for 216Sony and 446CDT (Center for Democracy andTechnology) 125, 440cell chip 205, 305cell phones. See also smartphonebroadband access through 58by Motorola 320MySpace and 440smartphones and 108texting on 477touchscreens on 478with VoIP 497cell processors 462cells, of memory 224cellular automata 28, 75, 75–76,432, 499. See also Game of Lifecensorship and the Internet 76of blogs 53centralization and 440in China 211, 250encryption and 246policy and 472political extremism and 377Center for Democracy andTechnology (CDT) 125, 440CenterStage 299central computer 154centralization 439–440central processing unit. See CPUCentronics 360Cerf, Vinton D. 78CERN 43, 247, 403certificate, digital 78–79, 79,223–224certification authority 78–79, 79certification of computerprofessionals 79–80, 131, 171,356, 386, 506Certified Computing Professional(CCP) certificate 80Certified Netware Administrator(CNA) certificate 80Certified Netware Engineer (CNE)certificate 80CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) 216CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) 213CGI. See computer graphicsCGI (common gateway interface)80, 80–81, 249, 365, 508
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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20 application program interfacerat
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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50 bitmapped imagesuch tasks as gra
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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296 Mauchly, John WilliamMoving fro
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298 measurement units used in compu
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300 medical applications of compute
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302 memory managementTom’s Hardwa
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304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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306 Microsoft .NETbrowser had broug
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308 Microsoft WindowsIntroduced in
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310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
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312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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314 Mitnick, Kevin D.———. “
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316 molecular computingdevice could
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318 Moore, Gordon E.only one gun, w
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320 Motorola CorporationMotorola Co
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322 multimediaa maximum of 640 kB o
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324 multitasking“local” memory
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326 music and video distribution, o
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328 music and video players, digita
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330 natural language processingplac
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332 Net Neutrality• Do not post b
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334 networkGoogle Groups, is the be
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336 neural networkwebmd.com/stroke/
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338 numeric dataselect customer whe
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340 object-oriented programmingPARC
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342 Omidyar, Pierreprovided for typ
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344 online advertisingnew structure
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346 online gamblingand agencies suc
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348 online investingThe close and g
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350 online servicesand drugs. The s
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352 open-source movementopen-source
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354 operators and expressionsOperat
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356 optical computingA more general
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PPage, Larry(1973- )AmericanEntrepr
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360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
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362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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364 PDATheodoridis, Sergios, and Ko
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366 personal computerConway, Damian
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368 personal information managercom
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370 phishing and spoofing“Phishin
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372 PHPeach of the three RGB colors
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374 Plug and PlayImpact of the Lang
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376 pointers and indirectionA point
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378 popular culture and computingHo
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380 presentation softwareDeclineBy
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382 printersarray of magnetically c
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384 procedures and functionsagencie
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386 programming as a professioncalc
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388 programming languagesprogrammer
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390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
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392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Qquality assurance, softwareModern
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396 queueIn an empty queue, the hea
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RRAID (redundant array of inexpensi
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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Ttablet PCAs the name suggests, a t
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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Page 523 and 524: 510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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Page 537 and 538: 524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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Page 541 and 542: 528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
Page 543 and 544: 530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
Page 545 and 546: 532 Appendix II• Users of the new
Page 547 and 548: 534 Appendix II••ibm developed
Page 549 and 550: 536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
Page 551 and 552: 538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
Page 553 and 554: 540 Appendix II• Apple released o
Page 555 and 556: Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
Page 557 and 558: 544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
Page 559 and 560: 546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
Page 561 and 562: 548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
Page 563 and 564: 550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
Page 565 and 566: 552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
Page 567 and 568: 554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
Page 569: 556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
Page 573 and 574: 560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
Page 575 and 576: 562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
Page 577 and 578: 564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
Page 579 and 580: 566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
Page 581 and 582: 568 Indexin open-source movement352
Page 583 and 584: 570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
Page 585 and 586: 572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
Page 587 and 588: 574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
Page 589 and 590: 576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
Page 591 and 592: 578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
Page 593: 580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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