Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

104 computer graphicsthe same time, the home game cartridge machine was introducedby Atari and other companies, while the arcade gamePac-Man became a phenomenal success in 1980 (see gameconsoles).Role-playing, Real-time, and Social WorldsAround the time of the first home computers, a noncomputergame called Dungeons and Dragons became extremelypopular. “D&D” and other role-playing games allowed playersto create and portray characters, with elaborate rulesbeing used to resolve events such as battles. Role-playinggames soon began to appear on PCs—early examplesinclude the Wizardry and Ultima series. Meanwhile, textbasedadventure games were becoming popular on earlycomputer networks, particularly at universities. Theseevolved into MUDs (Multi-User Dungeons) where players’characters could interact with each other. Eventually manyof these programs went beyond their adventuring roots tocreate a variety of social worlds in a sort of text-based virtualreality.By the 1990s, the typical PC had a special circuit (seegraphics card) capable of displaying millions of colors,together with video memory (now 256 MB or more) thatcould hold the complex images needed for high-resolutionanimation. Computer game graphics have become increasinglycomplex (see computer graphics), including realistictextures, shading and light, smooth animation, andspecial effects rivaling Hollywood. (Compare, for example,early wireframe graphics in games such as the Wizardry of1980 with games such as Diablo II and Warcraft with animatedcharacters moving in a richly textured world.)The way players interact with the game world has alsosignificantly changed. The first computer games tended tobe divided into turn-based strategy and role-playing gamesand real-time arcade-style “shoot ’em ups.” Today, however,most games, regardless of genre, run as RTS (real-time simulations)in which players must interact continuously withthe game situation.By the late 1990s gaming was no longer a solitary pursuit.The Internet made it possible to offer game worlds inwhich thousands of players could participate simultaneously(see online games). Games such as Everquest andAsheron’s Call have thousands of devoted players who spendmany hours developing their characters’ skills, while openendedworlds such as Second Life seem to no longer begames at all, but a virtual, parallel universe with a fullrange of social interaction. However, the increased realismof modern games has also heightened the controversyabout in-game violence and other antisocial behavior, asin the Grand Theft Auto series. (Although there is a ratingsystem for games similar to that for movies, its effectivenessin keeping adult-themed games out of the hands of youngchildren seems to be limited.)Game DevelopmentThe emphasis on state-of-the-art animation and graphicsand multiplayer design has changed the way game developmentis done. The earliest home computer games were typicallythe product of a single designer’s vision, such as ChrisCrawford’s Balance of Power and Richard Garriott (“LordBritish”) in the Ultima series. Today, however, commerciallycompetitive games are the product of teams that includegraphics, animation, and sound specialists, actors and voicetalent, and other specialists in addition to the game designers.While earlier games might be compared to books withsingle authors, modern game developers often comparetheir industry to the movie industry with its dominant studios.And, as with the movie industry, critics have arguedthat the high cost of development and of access to the markethas led to much imitation of successful titles and lessinnovation.On the other hand, a variety of modern programmingenvironments (such as Visual Basic or even MacromediaFlash) make it easy for young programmers to get a tasteof game programming, and for amateur programmers tocreate games that can be distributed via the Internet (seeshareware and freeware). Although computer scienceprograms have been slow to recognize the attraction andvalue of game programming, a variety of academic programsare now emerging. These range from computer arts,graphics, and animation programs to a full-fledged fouryeardegree program in game design at the University ofCalifornia, Santa Cruz. This program includes not onlycourses in game design and programming, but also courseson the game business and even ethics.Further ReadingAronson, Sean. “School Fills Need for Game Designers.” Medianews,June 18, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.insidebayarea.com/sanmateocountytimes/localnews/ci_6168502. Accessed June 20, 2007.Chaplain, Heather, and Aaron Ruby. Smartbomb: The Quest forArt, Entertainment, and Big Bucks in the Videogame Revolution.Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books, 2005.Crawford, Chris. Chris Crawford on Game Design. Indianapolis:New Riders, 2003.———. Chris Crawford on Interactive Storytelling. Berkeley, Calif.:New Riders, 2005.Game Developer. [magazine] Available online. URL: http://www.gdmag.com/homepage.htm. Accessed June 23, 2007.Howland, Geoff. “How Do I Make Games? A Path to Game Development.”Available online. URL: http://www.gamedev.net/reference/design/features/makegames/. Accessed June 23, 2007.Moore, Michael E., and Jennifer Sward. Introduction to the GameIndustry. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2006.computer graphicsMost early mainframe business computers produced outputonly in the form of punched cards, paper tape, or textprintouts. However, system designers realized that somekinds of data were particularly amenable to a graphical representation.In the early 1950s, the first systems using thecathode ray tube (CRT) for graphics output found specializedapplication. For example, the MIT Whirlwind and theAir Force’s SAGE air defense system used a CRT to displayinformation such as the location and heading of radar targets.By 1960, the new relatively inexpensive minicomputerssuch as the DEC PDP series were being connected toCRTs by experimenters, who among other things createdSpacewar, the first interactive video game.