Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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Index 565PageRank algorithm of 57,210, 211, 423, 480phone platform from 437searching with 423in social networking 441Yahoo! and 523YouTube and 524Google Apps 21, 107, 211, 217,294, 306Google Book Search 167, 211Google Docs & Spreadsheets 21,107, 211, 294, 517Google Earth 211, 292–293Google Groups 333–334Google Language Tools 271Google Maps 211, 292–293, 294,423Google News 211Google Pack 21Google Product Search 211Gopher 248, 518Gosling, James 255“GO TO Considered Harmful”(Dijkstra) 151Gouraud shading 106government 49, 76, 172–173, 181,250, 436government funding of computerresearch 212–213, 404, 462, 472GPL3 (General Public License)150, 352, 457, 478GPS (Global Positioning System)209, 364, 384Grand Theft Auto series 104graphical user interface. See userinterfacegraphics. See computer graphicsgraphics card 213, 213–214BIOS and 49–50chipset for 86games and 104in IBM PC 236in I/O processing 243in laptops 272microprocessor for 305on motherboard 319in PCs 322performance of 106Graphics Device Interface (GDI)308graphics engine 105–106graphics formats 94, 214–215graphics interchange format (GIF)94, 134, 214graphics modeling 105–106graphics tablet 215, 215graphing calculators 71Gray, Elisha 525greedy algorithm 8green, in RGB 93greenhouse emissions 216green PC 101, 215–216Greiner, Helen 60, 253grid computing 87, 155, 216–217,494Grokster 246groupware 217–218Grove, Andrew S. 218, 318GSM (Global System of MobileCommunications) 436, 514GUI. See user interfaceGulf War 242Gulliver’s Travels (Swift) 418Gutmans, Andi 372HHackers (Levy) 482hackers and hacking 219–220. Seealso computer crime; securityof application serviceproviders 21banking and 39copy protection and 246in cyber culture 125IBM and 235Mitnick and 314in open-source movement352in popular culture 378Stallman and 456Stoll and 458of voting systems 176hacktivism 127hafnium 86HAL 9000 (character) 59Halo (game) 306Halting problem 97Hamming Code 186Handbook of Artificial Intelligence(Feigenbaum, ed.) 190hand geometry 48handheld scanner 416handwriting recognition 220–221,221, 466, 489hanging chads 175, 392Hannibal (robot) 56haptic interfaces 221–222harassment 100, 126, 248, 252,523hard disk 222, 222–223BIOS and 49bits in 50in boot sequence 55for data backup 37development of 404for file servers 192in game consoles 205in IBM PC 236in information retrieval 240in laptops 272tape drives and 467for virtual memory 302hardware 95, 137, 240, 245Harvard Mark I 5, 61, 231, 498Harvey, Brian 285hashing 24, 223–224, 240, 365,448hash sort 448Haskell language 204Hawking, Stephen 151Hawkins, Trip 174Hayek, F. A. 500Hazen, Harold 510HD-DVD 75HDTV 75head-mounted display (HMD)496, 501health, personal 300–301, 367–368, 436heap 24, 224heapsort 447hearing damage, from musicplayers 327heat 101, 305Heinlein, Robert 98Hellman, Martin 145, 180“Hello World” 67Help America Vote Act 176help desks 108HelpMate (robot) 183, 410HelpMate Robotics, Inc. 183help systems 224–225, 233, 308,471. See also technical supportheuristic 8Heuristic Compiler 33Hewlett-Packard (HP) 16, 237, 258hexadecimal system 225–226high-level language 29, 227,252–253, 278, 288, 337. See alsoC (language); C++ (language);FORTRANhigh-speed Internet. See broadbandHigh Tech Heretic (Stoll) 458highway system, automated 71–72Hilbert, David 87Hillis, Daniel 461history (Web browser) 234history of computing 226–229HMD (head-mounted display)496, 501Hoare, Anthony 33Hoare, C. A. R. 447Hoff, Marcian E. “Ted” 304,318–319Holberton, Betty 515Holland, John 28Hollerith, Herman 229–230, 458Homebrew Computer Club 18,366, 488, 519home business schemes 345Homeland Security 119, 136home media center 299home office 230–231Honeywell 297Hopper, Grace Murray 90, 231,231–232, 515hospital information systems (HIS)299HotBits 399Hot Plug 63“hot spots” 58, 250, 250Howard, John H. 63HP (Hewlett-Packard) 16, 237, 258HTML (Hypertext MarkupLanguage) 232, 232–233. Seealso DHTML; XHTMLCGI and 80–81in document formatting 342for help systems 225for hypertext 233for Internet applicationsprogramming 249with Java 255with JavaScript 256for presentations 381Web browsers and 503in Web page design 507for World Wide Web 518XML and 520HTTP (HyperText TransferProtocol) 157–158, 233, 438,503, 508, 518Huffman coding 134human-computer symbiosis 139,277, 391human genome 46human mind, modeling 92–93Human Use of Human Beings, The(Wiener) 511HVAC, in smart buildings 434hybrid cars 71Hypercard 32, 99, 122, 233, 322hypermedia 233–234. See alsomultimediaHyperterminal 476hypertext 233–234Bush and 63in computer history 229Engelbart’s work on 182in help systems 225multimedia and 322for World Wide Web 43in World Wide Web 518II18n 246–247IAD (Internet addiction disorder)391IBM (International BusinessMachines) 235–236Amdahl at 10Apple and 258in computing history 227Deep Blue and 85FORTRAN developed at 202government funding of 212hafnium chips by 86Hollerith and 230IAS computer and 499Java and 255mainframes by 290, 290marketing of 106Mark I underwritten by 5McCarthy at 297in office automation 341optical hybrid chip by 356parallel interface by 360patents owned by 245popular culture and 378research of 404RPG at 412supercomputers of 462tape format of 467word processor and 516X10 at 324IBM/360 227, 235, 290, 290, 323IBM/370 235, 290IBM/390 290IBM MVS JCL 257IBM PC 236–237. See also PCclonesApple II and 18, 258boot sequence for 54–55bus in 62in computing history 228in education 99in IBM business 235introduction of 366keyboard of 265Macintosh and 287market entry of 106–107microprocessors in 304, 319monitor for 318operating system for 107,206, 305, 307, 321processors for 4, 218reverse engineering of 405standards and 457word processing on 516Ibuka, Masaru 445IC. See integrated circuitICANN (Internet Corporation forAssigned Names and Numbers)17, 158, 251ICCP (Institute for Certification ofComputing Professionals) 80Icon 83icons 247ICT (Information andCommunication Technologies)Task Force 251ICYou.com 368IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)223Identification division 91identity fraud 238identity in the online world 17,124, 125, 237–238, 391, 482, 524identity theft 100, 238–239. Seealso computer crime; onlinefraud and scamsbiometrics and 49credit card use and 146data security and 137by hackers 220information collection in384Internet growth and 248phishing in 369, 370policy on 472risk and 408spyware in 453with viruses 111ideographs 82
566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing DomainNames in Applications) 158IEC (International ElectrotechnicalCommission) 298IEEE Transactions on InformationTheory (Diffie and Hellman)146IETF (Internet Engineering TaskForce) 251if statements 55IGF (Internet Governance Forum)251IIOP (Internet Inter-ORB Protocol)118iLife 357I.Link 197Illustrator (Adobe) 4iMac 19, 258, 288image, bitmapped 50, 50, 81, 214image manipulation, as art 25image processing 110, 112, 204,239, 300. See also computergraphicsiMovie 493IMP 78impaired driving, monitoring 71imperative languages 203implementation 138, 154, 394, 444IMPs (Interface MessageProcessors) 266income, in digital divide 149incremental computing 463increment operation 65index file, in information retrieval240index register 119–120, 304index table 223India 143, 149, 209indirection 375–377Inducing Infringement ofCopyrights Act 445induction 190industrial robots 182–183,410–411industry 99. See also CAD/CAMinference engine 188, 188Information and CommunicationTechnologies (ICT) Task Force251information design 239–240“Information Flow in LargeCommunication Nets”(Kleinrock) 266information hiding 129, 460Information Processing TechnologyOffice (IPTO) 463information retrieval 240–241,273. See also search engineinformation science 46, 110information services, online. Seeonline servicesinformation systems auditing 31,130information systems degrees 171information theory 42, 241–242,427information transfer rate 38information warfare 100, 127, 220,242, 248, 311Information Week 260InfoTrac 349InfoWorld 260infrastructurein developing nations 143embedded systems in 178for enterprise computing 183in information warfare 242for Internet 87pyramid model of 291, 291for smart home 435society as 438inheritancein C# 67in cellular automata 75in classes 20, 88in data abstraction 129in object-orientedprogramming 67, 340in Simula 431Smalltalk and 434in-house applications 22in-house documentation 471Ink Development 343inkjet printer 380, 382inner identity 237In pointer 60input device. See graphics tablet;keyboard; mouseInput/Output (I/O) 242–243, 243in C 66in C++ 68in COBOL 91in computer engineering 101CPU and 304in flowcharts 200in mainframes 290microprocessor and 304in minicomputers 312in MS-DOS 321in operating systems 353in PL/I 373insertion, in list 282insertion sort 447–448installation of software 244instant messaging 11, 126, 198,217, 440, 477, 523Institute for Advanced Study 499Institute for Certification ofComputing Professionals (ICCP)80Institute for Electrical andElectronic Engineers (IEEE)79, 457Institute of Electrical andElectronics Engineers ComputerSociety 404instructionsaddressing 3in Analytical Engine 35in BINAC 167in cache 10, 69–70CPU processing of 304in machine code 28storage of 167instrumentation, scientific419–420integer 138, 338integrated circuit (IC). See alsoCPU; microprocessorin calculators 71in chipsets 86in computing history 227invention of 85in microcomputer 228Moore’s work with 318in supercomputers 461Sutherland’s work on 463Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)223Intel Corporation 244–245AMD processors and 4Apple and 258chipset architecture of 86Grove at 218hafnium chips by 86in industry standardization237Macintosh and 288, 357microprocessors of 228, 304Moore at 318–319nanotechnology at 330in USB development 197intellectual property andcomputing 245–246censorship and 76centralization and 440digital rights managementand 149–150DVRs and 164file-sharing networks and193Google Book Search and167, 211hackers and 219ISPs and 252at MIT Media Lab 313policy on 472YouTube and 524intelligence, defining 26intelligence agencies 118–119, 136IntelliGenetics 190intelligent agents. See softwareagentsIntellipedia 119intentional programming 430Intentional Software 430InterCasino 346Interface Message Processors(IMPs) 266interfaces. See specific typesinterference 408interlaced display 318interlock mechanism 113intermediate language (IL) 67intermediate representation 96, 96International ElectrotechnicalCommission (IEC) 298internationalization andlocalization 158, 246–247Internationalizing Domain Namesin Applications (IDNA) 158International Space Station 430International StandardsOrganization (ISO) 457International TelecommunicationUnion (ITU) 251, 316Internet 247–249. See also WorldWide Webbandwidth on 38broadband for 57–59business use of 64centralization and 439–440computer-aided instructionover 99computer engineering and102in computer science 110in computer security 100in computing history 228,229data communications over133definition of 468digital divide of 148–149distance education over153–154DNS in 155employment in 178–179in groupware 217infrastructure for 87for journalism research 259legal theory on 274–275in libraries 276local area networks and 284multimedia on 322in office automation 342organization and governanceof 124, 250–251, 274–275,439, 494packet switching on 78, 133in popular culture 378portability and 95publications on 260risk and 408–409in science fiction 418–419in software marketing293–294TCP/IP and 468–469telecommunications and 473viruses spread by 100wiretapping and 119Internet addiction disorder (IAD)391Internet addresses 157–158Internet applications programming249–250Internet cafés 250, 250Internet Corporation for AssignedNames and Numbers (ICANN)17, 158, 251Internet Crime Complaint Center345Internet Engineering Task Force(IETF) 251Internet Explorer. See MicrosoftInternet ExplorerInternet Governance Forum (IGF)251Internet Inter-ORB Protocol (IIOP)118Internet Law Treatise 274Internet-only banks 39Internet radio 251Internet Relay Chat (IRC) 83, 442Internet security packages 197,505Internet service provider (ISP) 70,251–252, 332, 350–351, 451,503. See also America OnlineInternet tablet 466Internet telephony. See VoIPInternet Worm 111interpolation 371InterPress 379interpreter 252, 252–253in APL 18for BASIC 40Brief Code 297in LISP 281parsing by 360–361for Pascal 362for PostScript 379for Python 392for Ruby 413–414in scripting languages 421for Tcl 468interprocess communication 264interrupt-driven I/O 243, 243interrupt request (IRQ) 243, 243interstitial ads 344Intranet 229, 284, 292intrusion detection 102inventory 291investments 345, 348IP addresses 155, 158, 468, 469iPhone 19, 147, 258, 364, 437,466, 478iPod 19, 108, 154, 258, 326, 327,327–328, 375IP phone 496iptables 197IPTO (Information ProcessingTechnology Office) 463IPTV 69IP Version 6 158Iraq War 53, 198IRC (Internet Relay Chat) 83, 442iris scanning 48, 48iRobot Corporation 60, 253iRobot Create 253IRQ (interrupt request) 243, 243ISA (industry standardarchitecture) 62, 62, 237, 319,457
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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296 Mauchly, John WilliamMoving fro
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298 measurement units used in compu
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300 medical applications of compute
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302 memory managementTom’s Hardwa
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304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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306 Microsoft .NETbrowser had broug
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308 Microsoft WindowsIntroduced in
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310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
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312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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314 Mitnick, Kevin D.———. “
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316 molecular computingdevice could
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318 Moore, Gordon E.only one gun, w
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320 Motorola CorporationMotorola Co
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322 multimediaa maximum of 640 kB o
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324 multitasking“local” memory
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326 music and video distribution, o
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328 music and video players, digita
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332 Net Neutrality• Do not post b
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334 networkGoogle Groups, is the be
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336 neural networkwebmd.com/stroke/
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338 numeric dataselect customer whe
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340 object-oriented programmingPARC
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342 Omidyar, Pierreprovided for typ
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344 online advertisingnew structure
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346 online gamblingand agencies suc
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348 online investingThe close and g
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350 online servicesand drugs. The s
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352 open-source movementopen-source
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354 operators and expressionsOperat
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356 optical computingA more general
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PPage, Larry(1973- )AmericanEntrepr
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360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
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362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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364 PDATheodoridis, Sergios, and Ko
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366 personal computerConway, Damian
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368 personal information managercom
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370 phishing and spoofing“Phishin
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372 PHPeach of the three RGB colors
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374 Plug and PlayImpact of the Lang
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376 pointers and indirectionA point
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378 popular culture and computingHo
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380 presentation softwareDeclineBy
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382 printersarray of magnetically c
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384 procedures and functionsagencie
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386 programming as a professioncalc
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388 programming languagesprogrammer
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390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
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392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Qquality assurance, softwareModern
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396 queueIn an empty queue, the hea
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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Ttablet PCAs the name suggests, a t
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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508 Web servicesWhen a user types i
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510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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Page 541 and 542: 528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
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Page 545 and 546: 532 Appendix II• Users of the new
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Page 551 and 552: 538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
Page 553 and 554: 540 Appendix II• Apple released o
Page 555 and 556: Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
Page 557 and 558: 544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
Page 559 and 560: 546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
Page 561 and 562: 548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
Page 563 and 564: 550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
Page 565 and 566: 552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
Page 567 and 568: 554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
Page 569 and 570: 556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
Page 571 and 572: 558 Indexdata communications over13
Page 573 and 574: 560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
Page 575 and 576: 562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
Page 577: 564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
Page 581 and 582: 568 Indexin open-source movement352
Page 583 and 584: 570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
Page 585 and 586: 572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
Page 587 and 588: 574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
Page 589 and 590: 576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
Page 591 and 592: 578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
Page 593: 580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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