Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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Web server 507What is the purpose of this work? Who am I writing for?What are the needs of this audience? A Web site that isdesigned to provide background information and contactfor a university department is likely to have a printlikeformat and a restrained style. Nevertheless, the designer ofsuch a site may be able to imaginatively extend it beyondthe traditional bounds—for example, by including streamingvideo interviews that introduce faculty members.A site for an online store is likely to have more graphicsand other attention-getting features than an academicor government site. However, despite the pressure to “grabeyeballs,” the designer must resist making the site so clutteredwith animations, pop-up windows, and other featuresthat it becomes hard for readers to search for and read aboutthe products they want.A site intended for an organization’s own use should notbe visually unattractive, but the emphasis is not on grabbingusers’ attention, since the users are already committedto using the system. Rather, the emphasis will be on providingspeedy access to the information people need to do theirjob, and in keeping information accurate and up to date.Once the general approach is settled on, the design mustbe implemented. The most basic tool is HTML, which hasundergone periodic revisions and expansions (see html).Even on today’s large, high-resolution monitors a screenof text is not the same as a page in a printed book ormagazine. There are many ways text can be organized (seehypertext and hypermedia). A page that is presentinga manual or other lengthy document can mimic a printedbook by having a table of contents. Clicking on a chaptertakes the reader there. Shorter presentations (such as productdescriptions) might be shown in a frame with buttonsfor the reader to select different aspects such as featuresand pricing. Frames (independently scrollable regions ona page) can turn a page into a “window” into many kindsof information without the user having to navigate frompage to page, but there can be browser compatibility issues.Tables are another important tool for page designers. Settingup a table and inserting text into it allows pages to beformatted automatically.Many sites include several different navigation systemsincluding buttons, links, and perhaps menus. This can begood if it provides different types of access to serve differentneeds, but the most common failing in Web design isprobably the tendency to clutter pages with features to thepoint that they are confusing and actually harder to use.Although the Web is a new medium, much of the traditionaltypographic wisdom still applies. Just as many peoplewho first encountered the variety of Windows or Macintoshfonts in the 1980s filled their documents with a varietyof often bizarre typefaces, beginning Web page designerssometimes choose fonts that they think are “edgy” or cool,but may be hard to read—especially when shown against apurple background!Today it is quite possible to create attractive Web pageswithout extensive knowledge of HTML. Programs suchas FrontPage and DreamWeaver mimic the operation of aword processor and take a WYSIWYG (what you see iswhat you get) approach. Users can build pages by selectingand arranging structural elements, while choosing stylesfor headers and other text as in a word processor. Theseprograms also provide “themes” that help keep the visualand textual elements of the page consistent. Of course,designing pages in this way can be criticized as leading to a“canned” product. People who want more distinctive pagesmay choose instead to learn the necessary skills or hire aprofessional Web page designer. A feature called CascadingStyle Sheets (CSS) allows designers to precisely control theappearance of Web pages while defining consistent stylesfor elements such as headings and different types of text(see cascading style sheets).Most Web pages include graphics, and this raises anadditional set of issues. Most users now have fast Internetconnections (see broadband), but others are still limited toslower dial-up speeds. One way to deal with this situation isto display relatively small, lower-resolution graphics (usually72 pixels per inch), but to allow the user to click on ornear the picture to view a higher-resolution version. Anotherconsideration in today’s wireless world is ensuring that Webpages likely to be useful to users on the go, such as a restaurantguide, display well in the small browsers found inmobile devices (see pda and smartphone). Page designersmust also make sure that the graphics they are using are createdin-house, are public domain, or are used by permission.Animated graphics (animated GIFs or more elaboratepresentations created with software) can raise performanceand compatibility issues. Generally, if a site offers, for example,Flash animations, it also offers users an alternative presentationto accommodate those with slower connections orwithout the necessary browser plug-ins.The line between Web page design and other Web servicescontinues to blur as more forms of media are carriedonline (see digital convergence). Web designers need tolearn about such media technologies (see for example podcasting,rss, and streaming) and find appropriate ways tointegrate them into their pages. Web pages may also needto provide or link to new types of forums (see blogs andblogging and wikis and Wikipedia).Further ReadingBeaird, Jason. The Principles of Beautiful Web Design. Lancaster,Calif.: Sitepoint, 2007.Lopuck, Lisa. Web Design for Dummies. 2nd ed. Hoboken, N.J.:Wiley, 2006.Robbins, Jennifer Niederst. Learning Web Design: A Beginner’sGuide to HTML, Graphics, and Beyond. Sebastapol, Calif.:O’Reilly Media, 2003.Sitepoint. Available online. URL: http://www.sitepoint.com.Accessed August 23, 2007.Web serverMost Web users are not aware of exactly how the informationthey click for is delivered, but the providers of informationon the Web must be able to understand and usethe Web server. In simple terms, a Web server is a programrunning on a networked computer (see Internet). Theserver’s job is to deliver the information and services thatare requested by Web users.
508 Web servicesWhen a user types in (or clicks on) a link in the browserwindow, the browser sends a HTTP request (see http andweb browser). To construct the request, the browser firstlooks at the address (URL) in the user request. An addresssuch as http://www.well.com/conferencing.html consists ofthree parts:• The protocol, specifying the type of request. For Webpages this is normally http. In many cases this partcan be omitted and the browser will assume that it ismeant.• The name of the server—in this case, www.well.com. The www indicates that it is a World Wide Webserver. The rest of the server name gives the organizationand the domain (.com, or commercial).• The specific page being requested. A Web page is simplya file stored on the server, and has the extensionhtm or html to indicate that it is an HTML-formattedpage. If no page is specified, the server will normallyprovide a default page such as index.html.In order to direct the browser’s request to the appropriatehost and server, the browser sends the URL to a nameserver (see domain name system). The name server providesthe appropriate numeric IP address (see tcp/ip). Thebrowser then sends an HTTP “get” request to the server’s IPaddress.Assuming the page requested is valid, the server sendsthe HTML file to the browser. The browser in turn interpretsthe formatting and display instructions in the HTMLfile and “renders” the text and graphics appropriately. It isremarkable that this whole process from user click to displayedpage usually takes only a few seconds, even if theWeb site is thousands of miles away and requests must berelayed through many intervening computers.Web Server FeaturesWeb servers would be simple if Web pages consisted onlyof static text and graphics. However, Web pages today aredynamic: They can display animations, sound, and video.They also interact with the user, responding to menusand other controls, presenting and processing forms, andretrieving data from linked databases. To do these things,the server cannot simply serve up a preformatted page, itmust dynamically generate a unique page that responds tothe user’s actions.This interactivity requires that the server be able torun programs (scripts) embedded in Web pages. The CommonGateway Interface (CGI) is the basic mechanism forthis, though many Web page developers can now work at ahigher level to create their page’s interaction through scriptsin languages such JavaScript. (See cgi and scripting languages.)The task of interfacing Web pages with databasefacilities is often accomplished using powerful data-managementlanguages (see Perl and Python).Windows-based servers use ASP (Active Server Pages), afacility that links the Web server to Windows ActiveX controlsto access databases. The interaction is usually scriptedin VB Script or JScript.Modern Web server software also contains modules formonitoring and security—an increasingly important considerationas Web sites become essential to business andthe delivery of goods and services.One of the most popular and reliable Web servers inuse today is Apache, developed in 1995 and freely distributedwith Linux and other UNIX systems (there is also aWindows version). The name is a pun on “a patchy server,”meaning that it was developed by adding a series of “softwarepatches” to existing NCSA server code. Microsoft alsoprovides its own line of Web server software that is specificto Windows.The future should see an increasingly seamless integrationbetween Web servers, browsers, and other applications.Microsoft has been promoting .NET, an initiative thatis designed to build Internet access and interoperabilityinto all applications, providing operating system extensionsand programming frameworks (see Ajax and Microsoft.NET).Beyond Microsoft’s mainly proprietary efforts, anothersource of integration is the growing use of the ExtensibleMarkup Language (see xml) and its offshoot SOAP (SimpleObject Access Protocol) (see soap). The goal is to give Webdocuments and other objects the ability to “communicate”their content and structure to other programs, and to allowprograms to freely request and provide services to oneanother regardless of vendor, platform, or location. As thistrend progresses, the Web server starts to “disappear” as aseparate entity and the provision of Web services becomes adistributed, cooperative effort (see also Web services).Further ReadingApache Software Foundation. Available online. URL: http://www.apache.org/. Accessed August 23, 2007.Aulds, Charles. Linux Apache Web Server Administration. 2nd ed.Alameda, Calif.: Sybex, 2002.Braginski, Leonid. Running Microsoft Internet Information Server.New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.Jones, Brian W. How to Host Your Own Web Server. Morrisville,N.C.: Lulu.com, 2006.Rosenbrock, Eric, and Eric Filson. Setting Up LAMP: Getting Linux,Apache, MySQL, and PHP Working Together. Alameda, Calif.:Sybex, 2004.Silva, Steve. Web Server Administration. Boston: Course Technology,2003.Web servicesA characteristic of the modern Web and its development isthat much of the software is designed to offer services orcapabilities that can be called upon by applications. Thiscreation of powerful, versatile building blocks has greatlysped the evolution of Web applications (see Web 2.0 andbeyond).In order to be useful, a service must be able to understand“messages” (requests) and provide appropriateresponses. The medium of exchange is a structured textfile (see xml) and a standard format. Three commonly usedspecifications (defined by the World Wide Web Consortium,or W3C) are what was originally called Simple Object
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)Image P
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Algolgrammar of the data-descriptio
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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282 list processinga rich variety o
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284 Logoa checksum, and two special
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286 LuaNext CharValHere Char$ is a
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288 macroMacDailyNews. Available on
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290 mainframeMaes has participated
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292 map information and navigation
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294 mashupsbefore you buy” softwa
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296 Mauchly, John WilliamMoving fro
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298 measurement units used in compu
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300 medical applications of compute
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302 memory managementTom’s Hardwa
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304 microprocessorMicroprocessor de
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306 Microsoft .NETbrowser had broug
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308 Microsoft WindowsIntroduced in
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310 middlewareBott, Ed, Carl Sieche
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312 minicomputer“How Military Rob
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314 Mitnick, Kevin D.———. “
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316 molecular computingdevice could
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318 Moore, Gordon E.only one gun, w
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320 Motorola CorporationMotorola Co
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322 multimediaa maximum of 640 kB o
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324 multitasking“local” memory
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326 music and video distribution, o
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328 music and video players, digita
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330 natural language processingplac
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334 networkGoogle Groups, is the be
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336 neural networkwebmd.com/stroke/
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338 numeric dataselect customer whe
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340 object-oriented programmingPARC
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342 Omidyar, Pierreprovided for typ
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344 online advertisingnew structure
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346 online gamblingand agencies suc
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348 online investingThe close and g
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350 online servicesand drugs. The s
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352 open-source movementopen-source
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354 operators and expressionsOperat
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356 optical computingA more general
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PPage, Larry(1973- )AmericanEntrepr
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360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
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362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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364 PDATheodoridis, Sergios, and Ko
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366 personal computerConway, Damian
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368 personal information managercom
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370 phishing and spoofing“Phishin
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372 PHPeach of the three RGB colors
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374 Plug and PlayImpact of the Lang
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376 pointers and indirectionA point
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378 popular culture and computingHo
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380 presentation softwareDeclineBy
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382 printersarray of magnetically c
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384 procedures and functionsagencie
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386 programming as a professioncalc
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388 programming languagesprogrammer
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390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
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392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Qquality assurance, softwareModern
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396 queueIn an empty queue, the hea
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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Page 515 and 516: 502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
Page 517 and 518: 504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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Page 523 and 524: 510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
Page 525 and 526: 512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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Page 531 and 532: 518 World Wide WebBy the beginning
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Page 541 and 542: 528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
Page 543 and 544: 530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
Page 545 and 546: 532 Appendix II• Users of the new
Page 547 and 548: 534 Appendix II••ibm developed
Page 549 and 550: 536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
Page 551 and 552: 538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
Page 553 and 554: 540 Appendix II• Apple released o
Page 555 and 556: Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
Page 557 and 558: 544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
Page 559 and 560: 546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
Page 561 and 562: 548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
Page 563 and 564: 550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
Page 565 and 566: 552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
Page 567 and 568: 554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
Page 569 and 570: 556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
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558 Indexdata communications over13
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560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
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562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
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564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
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566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
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568 Indexin open-source movement352
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570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
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572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
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574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
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576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
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578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
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580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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