Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

computer engineering 101Once a computer-based crime is detected, a systematicapproach to evidence gathering and investigation isrequired (see computer forensics). This is because evidencein computer crimes tends to be technical, intangible,and transient, and thus difficult to explain properly tojudges and juries.Individual consumers can reduce their vulnerability byensuring that they do not give out personal informationwithout verifying both the requester and the need for thedata. Use of secure Web sites for credit card transactionshas become standard. Generally speaking, vulnerabilityto computer crime is inversely proportional to the degreeof privacy individuals have with regard to their personalinformation (see privacy in the digital age). Public concernabout privacy and security has led to recent laws andinitiatives aimed at disclosure of organizations’ privacypolicy and limiting the redistribution of information oncecollected.Further ReadingBalkin, J. M. Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment.New York: New York University Press, 2007.CERT Coordination Center, Carnegie-Mellon University. Availableonline. URL: http://www.cert.org. Accessed August 12, 2007.Easttom, Chuck. Computer Security Fundamentals. Upper SaddleRiver, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2005.McQuade, Sam C. Understanding and Managing Cybercrime. Boston:Allyn & Bacon, 2005.Mitnick, Kevin, and William L. Simon. The Art of Intrusion. NewYork: Wiley, 2005.computer engineeringComputer engineering involves the design and implementationof all aspects of computer systems. It is the practicalcomplement to computer science, which focuses onthe study of the theory of the organization and processingof information (see computer science). Because hardwarerequires software (particularly operating systems) in orderto be useful, computer engineering overlaps into softwaredesign, although the latter is usually considered to be aseparate field (see software engineering).To get an idea of the scope of computer engineering, considerthe range of components commonly found in today’sdesktop computers:ProcessorThe design of the microprocessor includes the number andwidth of registers, method of instruction processing (pipelining),the chipset (functions to be integral to the packagewith the microprocessor), the amount of cache, the connectionto memory bus, the use of multiple processors, theorder in which data will be moved and stored in memory(low or high-order byte first?), and the clock speed. (Seemicroprocessor, chipset, cache, bus, multiprocessing,memory, and clock speed.)MemoryThe design of memory includes the type (static or dynamic)and configuration of RAM, the maximum addressable memory,and the use of parity for error detection (see memory,addressing, and error correction). Besides randomaccessmemory, other types of memory include ROM (readonlymemory) and CMOS (rewritable persistent memory).MotherboardThe motherboard is the platform and data transfer infrastructurefor the computer system. It includes the main databus and secondary buses (such as for high-speed connectionbetween the processor and video subsystem—see bus).The designer must also decide which components will beintegral to the motherboard, and which provided as addonsthrough ports of various kinds.Peripheral DevicesPeripheral devices include fixed and removable disk drives;CD and DVD-ROM drives, tape drives, scanners, printers,and modems.Device ControlEach peripheral device must have an interface circuit thatreceives commands from the CPU and returns data (seegraphics card).Input/Output and PortsA variety of standards exist for connecting external devicesto the motherboard (see parallel port, serial port, andusb). Designers of devices in turn must decide which connectionsto support.There are also a variety of input devices to be handled,including the keyboard, mouse, joystick, track pad, graphicstablet, and so on.Of course this discussion isn’t limited to the desktop PC;similar or analogous components are also used in larger computers(see mainframe, minicomputer, and workstation).NetworkingNetworking adds another layer of complexity in controllingthe transfer of data between different computer systems,using various typologies and transport mechanisms (suchas Ethernet); interfaces to connect computers to the network;routers, hubs, and switches (see network).Other ConsiderationsIn designing all the subsystems of the modern computer andnetwork, computer engineers must consider a variety of factorsand tradeoffs. Hardware devices must be designed witha form factor (size and shape) that will fit efficiently into acrowded computer case. For devices that require their ownsource of power, the capacity of the available power supplyand the likely presence of other power-consuming devicesmust be taken into account. Processors and other circuitsgenerate heat, which must be dissipated. (In an increasinglyenergy-conscious world the reduction of energy consumption,such as through standby or “hibernation” modes, isalso an important consideration—see green pc.) Heat andother forms of stress affect reliability. And in terms of how