Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

228 history of computingThe most striking innovation of the decade, however,was the microcomputer. The microcomputer (now oftencalled the “computer chip”) combined three basic ideas: anintegrated circuit so compact that it could be laid on a singlesilicon chip, the design of that circuit to perform the essentialaddressing and arithmetic functions required for a computer,and the use of microcode to embody the fundamentalinstructions. Intel’s 4004 introduced in late 1971 was originallydesigned to sell to a calculator company. When thatdeal fell through, Intel started distributing the microprocessorsin developer’s kits to encourage innovators to designcomputers around them. Soon Intel’s upgraded 8008 and8080 microprocessors were available, along with offeringsby Rockwell, Texas Instruments, and other companies.Word of the microprocessor spread through the electronichobbyist community, being given a boost by theJanuary 1975 issue of Popular Electronics that featured theAltair computer kit, available from an Albuquerque companycalled MITS for about $400. Designed around the Intel8080, the Altair featured an expansion bus (an idea borrowedfrom minis).The Altair was hard to build and had very limited memory,but it was soon joined by companies that designedand marketed ready-to-use microcomputer systems, whichsoon became known as personal computers (PCs). By 1980,entries in the field included Apple (Apple II), Commodore(Pet), and Radio Shack (TRS-80). These computers sharedcertain common features: a microprocessor, memory in theform of plug-in chips, read-only memory chips containinga rudimentary operating system and a version of the BASIClanguage, and an expansion bus to which users could connectperipherals such as disk drives or printers.The spread of microcomputing was considerably aidedby the emergence of a technical culture where hobbyistsIntegrated circuit (IC) chips for memory and control were makingfor increasingly powerful, compact, and reliable computer components.The microprocessor supplied the remaining ingredient neededfor a true desktop personal computer.and early adopters wrote and shared software, snatchedup a variety of specialized magazines, talked computers inuser groups, and evangelized for the cause of widespreadpersonal computing.Meanwhile, programming and the art of softwaredevelopment did not stand still. Innovations of the 1970sincluded the philosophy of structured programming (featuringwell-defined control structures and methods forpassing data to and from subroutines and procedures). Newlanguages such as Pascal and C, building on the earlierAlgol, supported structured programming design to varyingdegrees (see structured programming). Programmers oncollege campuses also had access to UNIX, a powerful operatingsystem containing a relatively simple kernel, a shellfor interaction with users, and a growing variety of utilityprograms that could be connected together to solve dataprocessing problems (see unix). It was in this environmentthat the government-funded ARPANET developed protocolsfor communicating between computers and allowingremote operation of programs. Along with this came e-mail,the sharing of information in newsgroups (Usenet), and agrowing web of links between networks that would eventuallybecome the Internet (see internet).1980sIn the 1980s, the personal computer came of age. IBM brokefrom its methodical corporate culture and allowed a designteam to come up with a PC that featured an open, expandablearchitecture. Other companies such as Compaq legallycreated compatible systems (called “clones”), and “PC-compatible”machines became the industry standard. Under theleadership of Bill Gates, Microsoft gained control of theoperating system market and also became the dominantcompetitor in applications software (particularly office softwaresuites).Although unable to gain market share comparable to thePC and its clones, Apple’s innovative Macintosh, introducedin 1984, adapted research from the Xerox PARC laboratoryin user interface design. At a time when PC compatibleswere still using Microsoft’s text-based MS-DOS, the Macsported a graphical user interface featuring icons, menus,and buttons, controlled by a mouse (see user interface).Microsoft responded by developing the broadly similarWindows operating environment, which started out slowlybut had become competitive with Apple’s by the end of thedecade.The 1980s also saw great growth in networking. Universitycomputers running UNIX were increasingly linkedthrough what was becoming the Internet, while office computersincreasingly used local area networks (LANs) suchas those based on Novell’s Netware system. Meanwhile, PCswere also being equipped with modems, enabling users todial up a growing number of on-line services ranging fromgiants such as CompuServe to a diversity of individuallyrun bulletin board systems (see bulletin board systems).In the programming field a new paradigm, object-orientedprogramming (OOP) was offered by languages suchas smalltalk and C++, a variant of the popular C language.The new style of programming focused on programs as