Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology

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netnews and newsgroups 333In the long run a balance will likely be struck betweenproviders’ need to control traffic to maintain efficiency andquality of service (QoS) and the rights of users to exchangeinformation and resources freely.Further Reading“Crackdown: Comcast Blocks Peer-to-Peer Web Traffic.” Portfolio.com,October 19, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.portfolio.com/views/blogs/daily-brief/2007/10/19/crackdown-comcast-blocks-peer-to-peer-web-traffic.Accessed October 21, 2007Gilroy, Angela A. Net Neutrality: Background and Issues. CongressionalResearch Service, May 16, 2006. Available online.URL: http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22444.pdf. AccessedOctober 25, 2007.Leonard, Thomas M., and Randolph J. May, eds. Net Neutrality orNet Neutering: Should Broadband Internet Services Be Regulated?New York: Springer, 2006.“Network Neutrality in the United States.” Wikipedia. Availableonline. URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_neutrality_in_the_US. Accessed October 21, 2007.Nuechterlein, Jonathan E., and Philip J. Weiser. Digital Crossroads:American Telecommunications Policy in the Internet Age. Cambridge,Mass.: MIT Press, 2007.netnews and newsgroupsOriginally called Usenet and originating in the UNIX usercommunity in the late 1970s, netnews is distributed todayover the Internet in the form of thousands of newsgroupsdevoted to just about every imaginable topic.DevelopmentBy the late 1970s, researchers at many major universitieswere using the UNIX operating system (see UNIX). In 1979,a suite of utilities called UUCP was distributed with thewidely used UNIX Version 7. These utilities could be usedto transfer files between UNIX computers that were linkedby some form of telephone or network connection.Two Duke University graduate students, Tom Truscottand Jim Ellis, decided to set up a way in which users on differentcomputers could share a collection of files containingtext messages on various topics. They wrote a simple set ofshell scripts that could be used for distributing and viewingthese message files. The first version of the news networklinked computers at Duke and at the University of NorthCarolina. Soon these programs were revised and rewrittenin the C language and distributed to other UNIX users asthe “A” release of the News software.During the 1980s, the news system was expanded andfeatures such as moderated newsgroups were added. As theInternet and its TCP/IP protocol (see tcp/ip) became amore widespread standard for connecting computers, a versionof News using the NNTP (Network News TransmissionProtocol) over the Internet was released in 1986. Netnewsis a mature system today, with news reading software availablefor virtually every type of computer.Structure and FeaturesNetnews postings are simply text files that begin with a setof standard headers, similar to those used in e-mail. (Likee-mail, news postings can have binary graphics or programfiles attached, using a standard called MIME, for MultipurposeInternet Mail Extensions.)The files are stored on news servers—machines thathave the spare capacity to handle the hundreds of gigabytesof messages now posted each week. The files are stored ina typical hierarchical UNIX fashion, grouped into approximately75,000 different newsgroups.As shown in the following table, the newsgroups are brokendown into 10 major categories. The names of individualgroups begin with the major category and then specify subdivisions.For example, the newsgroup comp.sys.ibm.pcdeals with IBM PC-compatible personal computers, whilecomp.os.linux deals with the Linux operating system.Categoryaltbizcomphumanitiesmisc.newsrecscisoctalkMAIN DIVISIONS OFNETNEWS NEWSGROUPSCoverageAn alternative system with its own completeselection of topics.Business-related discussion, products, etc.Computer hardware, software and operatingsystems.Arts and literature, philosophy, etc.Various topics that don’t fit in anothercategory.Announcements and information relating tothe news system itself.Sports, games, and hobbies.The sciences.Social and cultural issues.Current controversies and debates.Distribution and ReadingThe servers are linked into a branching distribution system.Messages being posted by users are forwarded to the nearestmajor regional “node” site, which in turn distributesthem to other major nodes. In turn, when messages arriveat a major node from another region, they are distributedto all the smaller sites that share the newsfeed. Due to thevolume of groups and messages, many sites now choose toreceive only a subset of the total newsfeed. Sites also determinewhen messages will expire (and thus be removed fromthe site).There are dozens of different news reading programsthat can be used to view the available newsgroups andpostings. On UNIX systems, programs such as elm and tinare popular, while other newsreaders cater to Windows,Macintosh, and other systems. Major Web browsers such asNetscape and Internet Explorer offer simplified news readingfeatures. To use these news readers, the user accessesa newsfeed at an address provided by the Internet ServiceProvider (ISP). There are also services that let users simplynavigate through the news system by following the linkson a Web page. The former service called DejaNews, now
334 networkGoogle Groups, is the best-known and most complete suchsite.Further ReadingGoogle Groups. Available online. URL: http://groups.google.com.Accessed August 16, 2007.Hauben, Michael, and Ronda Hauben. Netizens: On the History andImpact of Usenet and the Internet. Los Alamitos, Calif.: IEEEComputer Society Press, 1997.Lueg, Christopher, and Danyel Fisher, eds. From Usenet to CoWebs:Interacting with Social Information Spaces. London: Springer,2003.Pfaffenberger, Bryan. The USENET Book: Finding, Using, and SurvivingNewsgroups on the Internet. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1995.Spencer, Henry, and David Lawrence. Managing Usenet. Sebastopol,Calif.: O’Reilly, 1998.networkIn the 1940s, the main objective in developing the first digitalcomputers was to speed up the process of calculation. Inthe 1950s, the machines began to be used for more generaldata-processing tasks by governments and business. By the1960s, computers were in use in most major academic, government,and business organizations. The desire for usersto share data and to communicate both within and outsidetheir organization led to efforts to link computers togetherinto networks.Computer manufacturers began to develop proprietarynetworking software to link their computers, but they werelimited to a particular kind of computer, such as a DEC PDPminicomputer, or an IBM mainframe. However, the U.S.Defense Department, seeing the need for a robust, decentralizednetwork that could maintain links between theircomputers under wartime conditions, funded the developmentof a protocol that, given appropriate hardware tobridge the gap, could link these disparate networks (seeInternet, local area network).Network ArchitectureToday’s networks are usually defined by open (that is, nonproprietary)specifications. According to the OSI (open systemsinterconnection) model, a network can be consideredto be a series of seven layers laid one atop another (see datacommunication).The physical layer is at the bottom. It specifies the physicalconnections between the computers, which can be anythingfrom ordinary phone lines to cable, fiber optic, orwireless. This layer specifies the required electrical characteristics(such as voltage changes and durations that constitutethe physical signal that is recognized as either a 1 or 0in the “bit stream.”The next layer, called the data link layer, specifies howdata will be grouped into chunks of bits (frames or packets)and how transmission errors will be dealt with (see errorcorrection).The network layer groups the data frames as parts of aproperly formed data packet and routes that packet fromthe sending node to the specified destination node. A varietyof routing algorithms can be used to determine the mostefficient route given current traffic or line conditions.The transport layer views the packets as part of a completetransmission of an object (such as a Web page) andensures that all the packets belonging to that object aresorted into their original sequence at the destination. Thisis necessary because packets belonging to the same messagemay be sent via different routes in keeping with trafficor line conditions.The session layer provides application programs communicatingover the network with the ability to initiate,terminate, or restart an interrupted data transfer.The presentation layer ensures that data formats areconsistent so that all applications know what to expect.This layer can also provide special services (see encryptionand data compression).Finally, the application layer gives applications highlevelcommands for performing tasks over the network,such as file transfer protocol (ftp).Most modern operating systems support this model.The Internet protocol (see TCP/ip) has become the linguafranca for most networking, so modern versions of MicrosoftWindows and the Macintosh Operating System as wellas all versions of UNIX provide the services that applicationsneed to make and manage TCP/IP connections.Networks that link computers remotely (such as overphone lines) are sometimes called wide area networks, orWANs. Networks that link computers within an office,home, or campus, usually using cables, are called localarea networks (LANs). See local area network for moredetails about LAN architecture and software.TrendsIt has become the norm for desktop and portable computersto have access to the Internet. A computer from whichone cannot send or receive e-mail or view Web pages almostgives the perception of being crippled, because so manyapplications now assume that they can access the network.For example, the latest antivirus programs regularly checktheir manufacturer’s Web site and download the latest virusdefinitions and software patches. Recent versions of Windows,too, include a built-in update facility that can obtainsecurity patches and newer versions of device drivers.The flip side of the power of networking to keep everyPC (and its user) up to date is the vulnerability to bothintrusion attempts and viruses (see computer crime andsecurity). Virtually all networks include a layer of softwarewhose job it is to attempt to block intrusions and protectsensitive information (see firewall).Besides attending to security, network administratorsand engineers must continually monitor the trafficon the network, looking for bottlenecks, such as an oftenrequesteddatabase being stored on a file server with a relativelyslow hard drive. Besides upgrading key hardware,another approach to relieve congestion is to adopt a distributeddatabase (see database management system)that stores “data objects” throughout the network and candynamically relocate them to improve access.
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Encyclopedia ofComputer scienceand
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C on t e n t sAcknowledgmentsivintr
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I n t r od u c t ion to t h eR e v
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Introduction to the Revised Edition
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AdaAdaStarting in the 1960s, the U.
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Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)Image P
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10 Amdahl, Gene MyronShanahan, Fran
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12 analog and digitalhistory, bring
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14 Andreessen, MarcCompleted in 193
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18 APLAPL (a programming language)T
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20 application program interfacerat
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22 application softwareURL: http://
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24 arrayIn languages such as C that
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26 artificial intelligenceby tradit
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28 artificial lifewriters such as V
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30 Atanasoff, John VincentAtanasoff
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32 authoring systemsway”—the se
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34 awkthose found in C. There are a
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36 backup and archive systemsthe ec
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38 Backus-Naur formBackus-Naur form
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40 basic input/output systemdecisio
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42 Bell Laboratoriesand the early a
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44 Bezos, Jeffrey P.use if it is to
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46 bioinformaticsand a hierarchy of
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48 biometricsvariety of biometric s
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50 bitmapped imagesuch tasks as gra
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52 blogs and bloggingThe shift oper
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54 boot sequenceoperators (called B
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Brooks, Rodney 59such as Flickr and
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ulletin board systems 61bugs and de
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66 CTotal = Total + 1;Total += 1;To
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68 C++While attracted to the advant
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70 calculatorthe location of the ca
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72 cascading style sheetsMojave Des
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74 CD-ROM and DVD-ROM“rapid proto
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76 censorship and the InternetIn 20
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78 central processing unitcentral p
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80 CGIIn a newly emerging sector th
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82 characters and stringsAs compute
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84 chess and computersOne of the be
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86 chipsetattached to the silicon s
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90 clock speedSinclair, Joseph T.,
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92 codecMurcah, Mike, Anne Prince,
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94 COMcommon object request broker
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96 compilersuch as a keyword (reser
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98 computer-aided design and manufa
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100 computer crime and securitycomp
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102 computer forensicsa device proc
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104 computer graphicsthe same time,
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106 computer industryso on). By cre
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108 computer industrypackages serve
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110 computer virus• What is the b
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112 computer visionsense on the par
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114 conferencing systemsFeldman, Mi
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116 cookiesunlike most traditional
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118 CORBA“activation” or “val
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120 CraigslistMano, M. Morris, and
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122 CRMtasks can be assigned to dif
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124 cyberneticsMany issues regardin
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126 cyberstalking and harassmentThe
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DdataToday the term data is associa
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130 database administrationsignal m
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132 database management systemMicro
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134 data compressionlocal network,
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136 data securityparticular purpose
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138 data typeswhile a list has one
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140 Dell, Inc.User Interface—The
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142 design patternsdesign patternsD
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144 device driverOne Laptop per Chi
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146 digital cashcould be worked bac
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148 digital dashboardThe ownership
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150 Dijkstra, Edsger W.discs. A big
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152 disaster planning and recoveryT
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154 distributed computingAnother wa
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156 DNSCSCUCVCXCYCZDEDJDKDMDODZECEE
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158 documentation of program codewi
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160 document modelSociety for Techn
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162 DRMresearchers. For example, Al
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164 DVRMPEG file) that is fully com
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166 e-books and digital librariesha
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168 e-commerceRemington Rand. Worki
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170 education and computersApplicat
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172 e-governmentlenges face educati
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174 Electronic Artsteaching softwar
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176 e-maillanguages. However this c
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178 employment in the computer fiel
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180 encapsulationconsist of a combi
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182 Engelbart, DouglasEngelbart, Do
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184 entrepreneurs in computinganaly
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186 error correctionSalvendy, Gavri
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188 expert systemsAnatomy of an Exp
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190 Feigenbaum, Edwardhttp://hissa.
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192 file serverdata integrity. Vers
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194 film industry and computingImpl
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196 firewallcontrolled by a state t
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198 flash and smart mobs(or even pr
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200 flowchartused to hold data. The
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202 FORTRANearly days of microcompu
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204 fuzzy logicdefining and arrangi
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206 Gates, William, IIIGame console
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208 Geographical Information System
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210 Google• downward wage pressur
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212 government funding of computer
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214 graphics formatsof objects so t
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216 grid computingoff. By 2000, vir
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218 Grove, Andrew S.Cavalancia, Nic
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220 handwriting recognitionand othe
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222 hard disk• remote surgery, wh
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224 health, personalTo search a has
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226 history of computingFurther Rea
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228 history of computingThe most st
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230 home officeFacing vigorous comp
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232 HTML, DHTML, and XHTMLFurther R
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234 hypertext and hypermediaImpleme
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236 IBM PCFurther ReadingBashe, Cha
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238 identity theftfrom meetings to
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240 information retrievalinvasion o
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242 information warfareShannon foun
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244 installation of softwareinstall
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246 internationalization and locali
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248 Internettransmission of a messa
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250 Internet censorshipDunaev, Serg
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252 interpreterconsidered to be ISP
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JJavaJava is a computer language si
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256 JavaScriptIn 2006 Sun Microsyst
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258 Jobs, Steven Paulan enthusiasti
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260 journalism and the computer ind
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262 Joy, Billwho will be unable to
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264 kernelcould send a message to t
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266 knowledge representationattende
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268 Kurzweil, RayFurther ReadingFre
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LLAN See local area network.languag
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272 laptop computerapplications for
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274 Lessig, Lawrencepleadings and o
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276 library, programadditional copi
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278 linguistics and computingIn his
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280 LISPA Linux system running Open
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Page 373 and 374: 360 parallel porthis work. Papert l
Page 375 and 376: 362 PascalLevine, John R., Tony Mas
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384 procedures and functionsagencie
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386 programming as a professioncalc
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388 programming languagesprogrammer
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390 PrologGiven the scope and pace
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392 punched cards and paper tapepun
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Qquality assurance, softwareModern
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396 queueIn an empty queue, the hea
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400 recursionand with the potential
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402 regular expressioncompetitive a
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404 reverse engineeringA similar ap
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406 RFIDParts of an RFID system. De
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408 risks of computingHafner, Katie
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410 roboticsMac. The MIT computer s
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412 RPGHenderson, Harry. Modern Rob
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414 Rubya file, as with many script
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416 satellite Internet serviceFurth
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418 science fiction and computingre
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420 scientific computing applicatio
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422 search engineuseful tools for m
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424 semantic WebSearch Engine Watch
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426 Shannon, Claude E.Service-orien
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428 shellPC-Write as a full-feature
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430 Simonyi, Charlestests for the p
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432 singularity, technologicalToget
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434 smart buildings and homesThis m
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436 smartphonestore a hundred or mo
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438 SOAPPogue, David. iPhone: The M
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440 social networkingThere continue
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442 software agentLife could be stu
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444 software piracy and counterfeit
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446 sorting and searching• Discma
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448 sound file formatsapproach, and
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450 Spafford, Eugene H.and computer
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452 spreadsheetSpeech recognition b
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454 SQLFurther Reading“Antispywar
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456 stackstackOften a temporary sto
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458 Stoll, CliffordCharles Babbage
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460 structured programmingsuited fo
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462 supply chain managementApplicat
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464 system administratorsystem admi
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Ttablet PCAs the name suggests, a t
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468 TclHaylor, Phil. Computer Stora
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470 technical supportIPv6 Informati
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472 technology policyDuring the 198
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474 telepresence• elimination of
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476 text editortyping commands into
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478 touchscreencode. This would mea
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480 trends and emerging technologie
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482 Turkle, SherryFurther ReadingHe
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Uubiquitous computingTraditionally
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486 USB% who | awk ' { print $1 }'H
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488 user groupsGarofoli, Joe. “Us
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VvariableVirtually all computer pro
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492 videoconferencingconsequence wa
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494 virtualizationused as an expres
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496 VoIPtank crews and even individ
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498 von Neumann, JohnJohn von Neuma
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WWales, Jimmy(1966- )AmericanIntern
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502 Web 2.0 and beyond“Web 2.0”
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504 webcamabout a 75 percent market
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506 Web page design• fluency in t
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508 Web servicesWhen a user types i
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510 Wiener, Norbertcomplexity . . .
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512 wikis and WikipediaWiki softwar
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514 Wirth, NiklausMobile Wireless N
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516 word processingto promote netwo
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518 World Wide WebBy the beginning
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XXMLSeveral markup languages have b
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YY2K problemSherlock Holmes once re
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524 YouTube• excessive time spent
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526 Zuse, Konradneeded would make t
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528 Appendix IRed Herring: The Busi
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530 Appendix IIing company (CTR) in
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532 Appendix II• Users of the new
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534 Appendix II••ibm developed
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536 Appendix II• Bill Gates and P
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538 Appendix II• A consortium cal
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540 Appendix II• Apple released o
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Appendix IIISome Significant Awards
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544 Appendix III1993 Juris Harmanis
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546 Appendix III1972 Paul E. Dirkse
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548 Appendix IIIJohn W. BackusRober
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550 Appendix IIIsity of Manchester
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552 Appendix IIIthereby enhancing A
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554 Appendix IVInternational Webmas
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556 IndexAnalytical Engine 35-36, 3
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558 Indexdata communications over13
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560 Indexgraphics in 106, 194haptic
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562 IndexDertouzos, Michael L. 141D
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564 IndexFFacebook 16, 440-441, 487
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566 IndexIDNA (Internationalizing D
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568 Indexin open-source movement352
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570 IndexMinard, Joseph 239mind 92-
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572 IndexOnStar 71ontologies and da
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574 Indexin object-orientedprogramm
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576 Indexsequential calculator 5ser
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578 Indexterminals in 475-476user i
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580 Indexdatabases in 132developmen
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