list of figures - Terry Sunderland

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Table 11. Effects on seed survival (and potential dispersal) of feeding selected rattan fruits to captive primates. Rattan genus (& fruit characteristics) Laccosperma (seed “coffee-bean” like, 1cm long x 0.6cm wide with thin fleshy mesocarp) n = 150 Eremospatha (seed, flattened, 2-3cm long, 1- 2cm wide, thick fleshy meoscarp) n = 80 Oncocalamus (seed globose 1.5cm in dia., wide medium fleshy mesocarp) n = 120 Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) n = 15 Mesocarp removed & eaten; seed swallowed whole (100%) Mesocarp removed and eaten; seed discarded (100%) Mesocarp discarded; seed chewed before swallowing (100%) Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) n = 6 Mesocarp removed & eaten; seed swallowed whole (100%) Mesocarp removed and eaten; seed discarded (100%) Mesocarp discarded; seed chewed before swallowing (100%) 200 Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) n = 9 Mesocarp removed & eaten; seed chewed (85%) before swallowing or seed discarded (15%) Mesocarp removed and eaten; seed discarded (100%) Mesocarp discarded; seed chewed before swallowing (100%) Notes Good chance of seed survival, and excellent dispersal from parent Excellent chance of seed survival, although poor dispersal from parent No chance of seed survival; poor dispersal The striking aspect of this experiment is the fact that amongst the members of the primates represented the feeding behaviour and response to each fruit type was significantly uniform. Although the seed survival rates were highest amongst the species of Eremospatha, the fact that the seeds are immediately discarded suggests that dispersal from the parent is relatively short in terms of distance. As many species experience high rates of mortality beneath parents (Chapman and Chapman, 1995), primates as a dispersal mechanism for Eremospatha would be relatively ineffective. The fruits of Oncocalamus seem to be more highly prized for their endosperm than their fleshy mesocarp and all the seeds of this genus were destroyed by the primate “dispersers”. Only members of the genus Laccosperma were swallowed whole, probably due to their relatively small size. These seeds pass through the intestinal tract undamaged and, as such, are able to travel long distances in their host ensuring widespread dispersal. A number of species of hornbill are well known as being important dispersal agents of rattans (White and Abernethy, 1997; Whitney et al., 1998). In particular, species of
the genus Ceratogymna have been recorded to swallow whole seeds of Eremospatha macrocarpa and Laccosperma secundiflorum, without causing damage to the seed itself 9 (Whitney et al., 1998), although subsequent germination tests revealed a slightly deleterious effect on germination rates (ibid.). This ingestion and subsequent range movements suggests that dispersal of the seeds occurs for relatively long distances. The importance of flowering behaviour and seed dispersal is also discussed in Chapter 5. Table 12. Summary of recorded herbivory and dispersal of African rattans (from personal observations and literature cited above). Rattan species Plant part eaten Herbvivore / disperser Eremospatha cabrae Leaflets Fruit / seed Palm heart E. haullevilleana Leaflets Palm heart 201 Gorilla Gorilla, chimpanzee Chimpanzee Gorilla Gorilla, chimpanzee, bonobo E. hookeri Palm heart Gorilla, chimpanzee E. macrocarpa Fruit / seed Hornbill, drill, mandrill E. wendlandiana Fruit / seed Hornbill, drill Laccosperma Fruit Gorilla, chimpanzee, hornbill secundiflorum Palm heart Elephant, bonobo L. robustum Fruit / seed Gorilla, chimpanzee, mandrill, hornbill Palm heart Elephant, chimpanzee, bonobo L. opacum Fruit / seed Gorilla, chimpanzee, hornbill Palm heart Elephant, gorilla, chimpanzee Oncocalamus mannii Fruit / seed Mandrill Palm heart Spear borer O. tuleyi Fruit / seed Drill Calamus deërratus Palm heart Gorilla, chimpanzee 4.4 SEED PREDATION AND CACHING The fallen fruits of Laccosperma are often predated upon by rodents, particularly brush-tailed porcupines (Atherurus africanus). The relatively small size of the seeds of most members of this genus makes them ideal for rodent consumption. The tendency for these terrestrial frugivores to cache seeds for later consumption can occasionally provide the opportunity for some of the seeds to germinate if they are left for long enough in the conditions most appropriate for germination. In this regard, it is common to find large numbers of seedlings of Laccosperma germinating very closely together in cached groupings. However, these caches are never far from the parent individual.
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THE TAXONOMY, ECOLOGY AND UTILISATI
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The final Chapter presents summaris
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CHAPTER TWO TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT 2.1.
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3.3.3.2. Climate 180 3.3.3.3. Topog
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CHAPTER SEVEN A SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROF
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REFERENCES 290 APPENDIX ONE INDIGEN
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Figure 42. Distribution of O. tuley
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Figure 110. How many years spent in
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work would no
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ecommended this project be funded b
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CHAPTER ONE MORPHOLOGY AND BIOGEOGR
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Similar branching of the stem is al
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The growing point of the stem of ra
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Aerial roots are commonly encounter
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sloughing of the sheath spines part
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For many of the species of Eremospa
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Figure 3. Acanthophylls of Laccospe
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In common with other members of the
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exception to this is Laccosperma op
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of overall diversity, when compared
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CHAPTER TWO TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT “Ta
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It is somewhat surpising that since
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evidence suggests that the climbing
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2.5. KEY TO THE GENERA Rattans clim
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horizontal, peduncle enclosed withi
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Knee absent: Stem ± triangular in
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15 cm broad, deeply notched with ro
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Distribution This species occurs fr
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Bot. Appl. 17: 896 (1936); Renier i
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Figure 3. Eremospatha cabrae (De Wi
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sterile, 1904 (BR!); Cabra s.n., Ma
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Figure 5. Eremospatha laurentii De
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(SCA!); de Wilde 2183, 60km S of Es
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long, decreasing distally, rachilla
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Distribution E. wendlandiana is dis
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indumentum; ocrea obliquely truncat
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Distribution E. barendii is known f
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stems sessile, up to 3.5 m long; ra
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Distribution E. macrocarpa is a ver
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(YA!); Letouzey 12563, Lac Tissongo
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and sparse distally; leaflets 8-14
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Distribution E. haullevilleana is r
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FHO!, BR!); Louis 9560, 20km W of Y
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order region of Cameroon and the Ri
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pairs c.3 cm long, at 45° angle to
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Figure 17. Eremospatha cuspidata (G
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ase, entire and acuminate to irregu
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Figure 19. Eremospatha tessmanniana
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LACCOSPERMA (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) D
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Habitat and distribution The genus
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(1929); Hutch. in F.W.TA. 2: 391 (1
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Habitat and ecology Tolerant of dee
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Figure 21. Laccosperma opacum (G. M
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± concolorous with prominent trans
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December 6, 1984 (WAG!); le Testu 1
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Figure 31. Laccosperma acutiflorum
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(06.09N:01.53W) Fl., June 1972 (MO!
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portion of stem; peduncle 12-20 cm
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Distribution L. robustum is very co
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1997 (K!, EG!, BH!); Sunderland 179
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own indumentum below; leaflets comp
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Distribution This species is distri
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French). A brief discussion of this
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Imperfectly-known taxon Laccosperma
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ONCOCALAMUS (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H
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Key to the species of Oncocalamus M
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moderately to sparsely armed with b
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Distribution O. mannii is restricte
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often concentrated on the sheath ap
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Distribution O. macrospathus is dis
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sheath, spines concentrated on marg
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Distribution This species is restri
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ocrea, often sloughing off to leave
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Notes O. wrightianus is distinct fr
Page 149 and 150: CALAMUS L. (Greek = a reed) L. in S
Page 151 and 152: Robyns & Tournay in Fl. du Parc Nat
Page 153 and 154: prickle-like spines; bracts tightly
Page 155 and 156: Distribution C. deërratus is the m
Page 157 and 158: (06.05N:00.50W) pist., March 17, 19
Page 159 and 160: MIXED COLLECTIONS A number of colle
Page 161 and 162: Figure 51. E. macrocarpa seedling,
Page 163 and 164: Figure 59. E. cuspidata, Etembue, E
Page 165 and 166: Figure 67. L. secundiflorum, Ghana
Page 167 and 168: Figure 75. O. mannii, Ayemaken, Equ
Page 169 and 170: CHAPTER THREE RATTAN DIVERSITY AND
Page 171 and 172: an inventory or survey. These param
Page 173 and 174: clustering species are to be includ
Page 175 and 176: 3.3.1.2 Climate The Campo Reserve h
Page 177 and 178: the reserve has no management plan
Page 179 and 180: associated with drier forest, was c
Page 181 and 182: the lowland forest is characterised
Page 183 and 184: sampling intensities were much lowe
Page 185 and 186: seedling 6 or length of stem) were
Page 187 and 188: Table 5. Rattan abundance and stock
Page 189 and 190: sampling of the rattan population,
Page 191 and 192: concentrated, not only on rattan, b
Page 193 and 194: Table 10. A comparison of rattan di
Page 195 and 196: 4.1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER FOUR RATTA
Page 197 and 198: the palm hearts from ground-level (
Page 199: feed on these fruits for long perio
Page 203 and 204: latter situation has been observed
Page 205 and 206: Hollow sheaths Some species of ant
Page 207 and 208: Table 15. Count of domatia and ratt
Page 209 and 210: Figure 85. Ant colonisation of leaf
Page 211 and 212: (Fisher et al., 1987), followed by
Page 213 and 214: Table 16. Hapaxanthy in the Palmae
Page 215 and 216: Figure 89. Lateral inflorescences o
Page 217 and 218: the absence of primate dispersers i
Page 219 and 220: CHAPTER SIX INDIGENOUS NOMENCLATURE
Page 221: The extensive nature and wide range
Page 224 and 225: Table 18. Summary of the non-cane u
Page 226 and 227: 1977; Berlin, 1992). This hypothesi
Page 228 and 229: taxonomies are included in (or affi
Page 230 and 231: taxa (standing palms) within their
Page 232 and 233: Table 19. Life form, intermediate a
Page 234 and 235: For example, the Anyang of Cameroon
Page 236 and 237: Box 2. The structure of vernacular
Page 238 and 239: intermediate categories for African
Page 240 and 241: hoped that any future development o
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Page 244 and 245: CHAPTER SEVEN A SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROF
Page 246 and 247: Interestingly, the patterns of expl
Page 248 and 249: Figure 99. Scatterplot of size of m
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forest products (see Box 3) these a
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Figure 101. Mean range (or distance
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aid a wage. In fact, quite the oppo
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7.5.3 Socio-economic profile of the
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7.5.3.5 Previous occupations A larg
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the rainy season when transport dif
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Figure 114. Cited reasons for decli
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service. Unemployment increased fro
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Figure 116. Correlation between ran
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enefits rattan brings, those artisa
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from enabling the sustainable explo
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Figure 119. Woven basket products m
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such as Indonesia have lifted the b
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press; this study) and the conditio
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Table 31. Findings and recommendati
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of this trade, in fiscal terms, to
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Not threatened (species distributio
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clears the plot again to plant food
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forest products, such as rattan for
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from the informal forest economy an
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REFERENCES Abbiw, D. 1990. The usef
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Belcher, B. 1999. A production to c
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Burkill, I.H. 1935. A dictionary of
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Dalziel, J.M. 1937. The useful plan
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Dransfield, J. 1988b. The palms of
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Fisher, J.B. & J. Dransfield. 1977.
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Hall, J.B. & M.D. Swaine. 1981. Dis
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Huxley, C.R. 1978. The ant-plants M
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Lee, Y.F. 1993. Some models for est
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Moore, H.A. 1973. Palms in the trop
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Oteng-Amoako, A.A. & B. Obiri-Darko
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Randall, R. & E. Hunn. 1984. Do lif
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Siebert, S.F. 1997. Economically im
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Tenati, G. [in press]. The use of r
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Weiner, G. and Liese, W. 1989. Anat
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APPENDIX ONE INDIGENOUS NOMENCLATUR
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and Uganda, in the absence of large
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E. cuspidata (G. Mann & H. Wendl.)
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also a strong binding material (Rus
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(unpubl. notes): BENIN: Profizi (19
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L. laeve (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. W
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The “palm heart” is eaten widel
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A tea made from the young shoots is
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O. wrightianus Hutch. Vernacular na
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Bidgood & Vollesen: Tanzania; 3040
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Dransfield: Cameroon; 6998, 6999, 7
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Heudelot: Gambia; 372 Hoier: DR Con
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Lowe: Nigeria; 2792, 2793, 4353, Ca
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Reitsma: Gabon; 1340, 2047, 2151, 2
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Webb & Bullock: Cameroon; 310 Welle
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APPENDIX FOUR SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY
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a) high forest b)farm c)fallow d) d
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APPENDIX FIVE PUBLICATIONS AND DISS
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DISSEMINATION 1. Sunderland, T.C.H.
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