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Table 18. Summary of the non-cane uses of African rattans (see Appendix 1 for further elaboration) Species Use Region Calamus deërratus Palm heart eaten Young shoots roasted and eaten Grilled leaves macerated and made into tea to promote weight loss and to treat oedema caused vitamin deficiencies Ash from burned roots used as salt substitute Sheath twisted and used to clean cooking pans Sheath twisted to make rope 224 Ghana, Sierra Leone Ghana Senegal Guinea-Bissau Ghana Nigeria Eremospatha cabrae Base of leaf sheath used as a chewstick DR Congo E. haullevilleana Palm heart eaten Fruits used for decoration Acanthophylls used as fish hooks Sap used as arbortifacient Congo DR Congo DR Congo DR Congo E. macrocarpa Powdered root used to treat syphilis Ghana, Nigeria E. wendlandiana Palm heart eaten Congo Base of leaf sheath used as a chewstick Cameroon Laccosperma laeve Roasted roots eaten to improve virility Central African Republic L. opacum Sap potable & drunk by forest workers Gabon Palm heart eaten Congo L. robustum Palm heart eaten Cameroon to Gabon Young leaves eaten in stews Equatorial Guinea L. secundiflorum Palm heart eaten Throughout its range Young shoots eaten Throughout its range Sap potable & drunk by forest workers Senegal, Gabon Tea from young shoots used as vermifuge Ghana, Gabon Sap, when mixed with other species, used to treat dysentary DR Congo Oncocalamus tuleyi Base of leaf sheath used as a chewstick Cameroon O. wrightianus Base of leaf sheath used as a chewstick Nigeria 6.3. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE AND HISTORY IN SUB- SAHARAN AFRICA The Niger-Congo family of languages dominates the forested zone of sub-Saharan Africa. From Sénégal to Lake Chad a number of distantly related languages within this language family occur (Oliver and Fage, 1975; Iliffe, 1995; Grimes, 1996). These non-Bantu languages are differentiated from one another to such an extent that through the study of glottochronology, most linguists postulate that they have been growing apart for around 8,000 years; at least as long as their speakers have been sedentary agriculturists (Oliver and Fage, 1975; Iliffe, 1995). In contrast, almost all of the peoples south of a line drawn from the Cross River area of SE Nigeria to southern Somalia speak more closely related languages (Vansina,
1990; Iliffe, 1995). These Bantu languages form a sub-group within the Niger-Congo family of languages that are relatively homogenous yet are distributed across a vast area of sub-Saharan Africa. From linguistic studies, it has been determined that the centre of origin of the Bantu languages is probably the Benue region of Nigeria (Vansina, 1990; Iliffe, 1995) from which, around 5,000 years ago, this Bantu family split into two branches: Eastern and Western (ibid.). The former group moved slowly eastwards along the northern edge of the Congo Basin to the great lakes area of East Africa whilst western Bantu developed east of the Cross River in the highlands of western Cameroon. Around 3,000 years ago, the Western Bantu speakers began to migrate slowly southwards, reaching as far as, what is now, northern Namibia. During this migration, pioneer groups broke off, travelling eastwards up the river valleys through the topical forest, settling as far inland as southern Sudan and the western Zambezi. The introduction of the banana and plantain, postulated to have occurred around 500 AD (Vansina, 1990), made this rapid expansion through the tropical forest possible as it provided the means to farm an otherwise inhospitable environment. The study of the ancestral Bantu language indicates that at the time of separation, Bantu speakers made pottery and had begun to farm, yet had not begun to use metals. Both Bantu groups had words for oil palm and yam and their cultivation, although there existed no vocabulary for cereal cultivation in Western Bantu until this group’s expansion reached the savannah areas of east and southern Africa. Most terms for root and tree cultivation are of western Bantu origin and it is clear that the Western Bantu vocabulary and system of classification of living things have developed to reflect the group’s familiarity with their forest surroundings (Guthrie, 1948; Guthrie, 1969-70; Vansina, 1990; Oliver, 1999). 6.4 BERLIN’S MODEL OF ETHNOBIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 6.4.1 Introduction It has been long recognised that the presence of hierarchically arranged folk taxonomies is probably universal and, as such, these are shared by a wide range of unrelated human societies (Conklin, 1962; Berlin, 1973; Berlin et al., 1973; Berlin, 225
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THE TAXONOMY, ECOLOGY AND UTILISATI
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The final Chapter presents summaris
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CHAPTER TWO TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT 2.1.
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3.3.3.2. Climate 180 3.3.3.3. Topog
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CHAPTER SEVEN A SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROF
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REFERENCES 290 APPENDIX ONE INDIGEN
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Figure 42. Distribution of O. tuley
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Figure 110. How many years spent in
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work would no
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ecommended this project be funded b
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CHAPTER ONE MORPHOLOGY AND BIOGEOGR
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Similar branching of the stem is al
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The growing point of the stem of ra
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Aerial roots are commonly encounter
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sloughing of the sheath spines part
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For many of the species of Eremospa
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Figure 3. Acanthophylls of Laccospe
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In common with other members of the
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exception to this is Laccosperma op
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of overall diversity, when compared
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CHAPTER TWO TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT “Ta
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It is somewhat surpising that since
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evidence suggests that the climbing
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2.5. KEY TO THE GENERA Rattans clim
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horizontal, peduncle enclosed withi
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Knee absent: Stem ± triangular in
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15 cm broad, deeply notched with ro
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Distribution This species occurs fr
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Bot. Appl. 17: 896 (1936); Renier i
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Figure 3. Eremospatha cabrae (De Wi
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sterile, 1904 (BR!); Cabra s.n., Ma
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Figure 5. Eremospatha laurentii De
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(SCA!); de Wilde 2183, 60km S of Es
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long, decreasing distally, rachilla
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Distribution E. wendlandiana is dis
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indumentum; ocrea obliquely truncat
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Distribution E. barendii is known f
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stems sessile, up to 3.5 m long; ra
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Distribution E. macrocarpa is a ver
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(YA!); Letouzey 12563, Lac Tissongo
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and sparse distally; leaflets 8-14
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Distribution E. haullevilleana is r
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FHO!, BR!); Louis 9560, 20km W of Y
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order region of Cameroon and the Ri
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pairs c.3 cm long, at 45° angle to
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Figure 17. Eremospatha cuspidata (G
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ase, entire and acuminate to irregu
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Figure 19. Eremospatha tessmanniana
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LACCOSPERMA (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) D
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Habitat and distribution The genus
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(1929); Hutch. in F.W.TA. 2: 391 (1
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Habitat and ecology Tolerant of dee
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Figure 21. Laccosperma opacum (G. M
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± concolorous with prominent trans
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December 6, 1984 (WAG!); le Testu 1
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Figure 31. Laccosperma acutiflorum
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(06.09N:01.53W) Fl., June 1972 (MO!
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portion of stem; peduncle 12-20 cm
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Distribution L. robustum is very co
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1997 (K!, EG!, BH!); Sunderland 179
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own indumentum below; leaflets comp
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Distribution This species is distri
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French). A brief discussion of this
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Imperfectly-known taxon Laccosperma
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ONCOCALAMUS (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H
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Key to the species of Oncocalamus M
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moderately to sparsely armed with b
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Distribution O. mannii is restricte
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often concentrated on the sheath ap
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Distribution O. macrospathus is dis
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sheath, spines concentrated on marg
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Distribution This species is restri
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ocrea, often sloughing off to leave
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Notes O. wrightianus is distinct fr
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CALAMUS L. (Greek = a reed) L. in S
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Robyns & Tournay in Fl. du Parc Nat
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prickle-like spines; bracts tightly
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Distribution C. deërratus is the m
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(06.05N:00.50W) pist., March 17, 19
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MIXED COLLECTIONS A number of colle
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Figure 51. E. macrocarpa seedling,
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Figure 59. E. cuspidata, Etembue, E
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Figure 67. L. secundiflorum, Ghana
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Figure 75. O. mannii, Ayemaken, Equ
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CHAPTER THREE RATTAN DIVERSITY AND
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an inventory or survey. These param
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Page 175 and 176: 3.3.1.2 Climate The Campo Reserve h
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Page 179 and 180: associated with drier forest, was c
Page 181 and 182: the lowland forest is characterised
Page 183 and 184: sampling intensities were much lowe
Page 185 and 186: seedling 6 or length of stem) were
Page 187 and 188: Table 5. Rattan abundance and stock
Page 189 and 190: sampling of the rattan population,
Page 191 and 192: concentrated, not only on rattan, b
Page 193 and 194: Table 10. A comparison of rattan di
Page 195 and 196: 4.1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER FOUR RATTA
Page 197 and 198: the palm hearts from ground-level (
Page 199 and 200: feed on these fruits for long perio
Page 201 and 202: the genus Ceratogymna have been rec
Page 203 and 204: latter situation has been observed
Page 205 and 206: Hollow sheaths Some species of ant
Page 207 and 208: Table 15. Count of domatia and ratt
Page 209 and 210: Figure 85. Ant colonisation of leaf
Page 211 and 212: (Fisher et al., 1987), followed by
Page 213 and 214: Table 16. Hapaxanthy in the Palmae
Page 215 and 216: Figure 89. Lateral inflorescences o
Page 217 and 218: the absence of primate dispersers i
Page 219 and 220: CHAPTER SIX INDIGENOUS NOMENCLATURE
Page 221: The extensive nature and wide range
Page 226 and 227: 1977; Berlin, 1992). This hypothesi
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Page 230 and 231: taxa (standing palms) within their
Page 232 and 233: Table 19. Life form, intermediate a
Page 234 and 235: For example, the Anyang of Cameroon
Page 236 and 237: Box 2. The structure of vernacular
Page 238 and 239: intermediate categories for African
Page 240 and 241: hoped that any future development o
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Page 244 and 245: CHAPTER SEVEN A SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROF
Page 246 and 247: Interestingly, the patterns of expl
Page 248 and 249: Figure 99. Scatterplot of size of m
Page 250 and 251: forest products (see Box 3) these a
Page 252 and 253: Figure 101. Mean range (or distance
Page 254 and 255: aid a wage. In fact, quite the oppo
Page 256 and 257: 7.5.3 Socio-economic profile of the
Page 258 and 259: 7.5.3.5 Previous occupations A larg
Page 260 and 261: the rainy season when transport dif
Page 262 and 263: Figure 114. Cited reasons for decli
Page 264 and 265: service. Unemployment increased fro
Page 266 and 267: Figure 116. Correlation between ran
Page 268 and 269: enefits rattan brings, those artisa
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Page 272 and 273: Figure 119. Woven basket products m
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such as Indonesia have lifted the b
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press; this study) and the conditio
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Table 31. Findings and recommendati
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of this trade, in fiscal terms, to
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Not threatened (species distributio
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clears the plot again to plant food
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forest products, such as rattan for
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from the informal forest economy an
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REFERENCES Abbiw, D. 1990. The usef
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Belcher, B. 1999. A production to c
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Burkill, I.H. 1935. A dictionary of
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Dalziel, J.M. 1937. The useful plan
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Dransfield, J. 1988b. The palms of
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Fisher, J.B. & J. Dransfield. 1977.
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Hall, J.B. & M.D. Swaine. 1981. Dis
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Huxley, C.R. 1978. The ant-plants M
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Lee, Y.F. 1993. Some models for est
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Moore, H.A. 1973. Palms in the trop
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Oteng-Amoako, A.A. & B. Obiri-Darko
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Randall, R. & E. Hunn. 1984. Do lif
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Siebert, S.F. 1997. Economically im
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Tenati, G. [in press]. The use of r
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Weiner, G. and Liese, W. 1989. Anat
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APPENDIX ONE INDIGENOUS NOMENCLATUR
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and Uganda, in the absence of large
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E. cuspidata (G. Mann & H. Wendl.)
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also a strong binding material (Rus
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(unpubl. notes): BENIN: Profizi (19
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L. laeve (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. W
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The “palm heart” is eaten widel
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A tea made from the young shoots is
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O. wrightianus Hutch. Vernacular na
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Bidgood & Vollesen: Tanzania; 3040
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Dransfield: Cameroon; 6998, 6999, 7
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Heudelot: Gambia; 372 Hoier: DR Con
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Lowe: Nigeria; 2792, 2793, 4353, Ca
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Reitsma: Gabon; 1340, 2047, 2151, 2
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Webb & Bullock: Cameroon; 310 Welle
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APPENDIX FOUR SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY
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a) high forest b)farm c)fallow d) d
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APPENDIX FIVE PUBLICATIONS AND DISS
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DISSEMINATION 1. Sunderland, T.C.H.
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