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initially received 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight/day, respectively. Doses were increased to 150 and 300 mg/kg respectively at 18 weeks, 200 and 400 mg/kg at 21 weeks and 150 and 300 mg/kg at 26 weeks. Total duration of exposure was 78 weeks. Animals were killed 12 weeks after exposure termination. The low and high time-weighted average doses for males and females was 142 and 282 mg/kg/day, respectively. Control groups (20 male, 20 female) were left untreated or given corn oil alone for 78 weeks, and were then killed after 90 weeks. Only 1 high-dose male survived to 90 weeks, compared with 34% of the females. The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma was positively correlated with dose level (p < 0.001) in both male and female mice; tumor incidence in males was 1/18 for vehicle-treated controls, 13/50 for the low-dose group and 44/49 for the high-dose group. The respective tumor incidence for females was 0/19, 30/48 and 43/47. Osborne-Mendel rats (50 male, 50 female) were treated with technical grade 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane in corn oil by gavage 5 days/week (NCI, 1978). High-dose animals initially received 100 mg/kg body weight/day. In males, doses were increased to 130 mg/kg at 14 weeks, followed by 9 cycles of 4 weeks at 130 mg/kg followed by 1 week treatment-free starting at 32 weeks. In females, the dose was reduced at 25 weeks to 80 mg/kg, then followed at 32 weeks by the cyclic dosing protocol described for males (dose level 80 mg/kg). The duration of the cyclic dosing for both males and females was 45 weeks. Low-dose rats were initially exposed to 50 mg/kg/day. Doses were increased for males to 65 mg/kg at 14 weeks; doses were decreased for females to 40 mg/kg at 25 weeks. The total duration of exposure for both dose groups was 78 weeks, followed by 32 weeks without treatment. The low and high time-weighted average doses were 62 and 108 mg/kg/day for males and 43 and 76 mg/kg/day for females. Control groups (20 male, 20 female) were left untreated or given corn oil alone for 78 weeks; all surviving control and exposed animals were killed at 110 weeks. No significant increases in tumor incidence for any tumor type were noted in exposed animals. However, 2 of 49 high-dose males developed hepatocellular carcinomas and another developed a neoplastic nodule, compared with 0/20 vehicle controls. Detailed reviews of these studies have been performed by IARC (1979) and US EPA (1980). V. DERIVATION OF CANCER POTENCY Basis for Cancer Potency Data from the bioassay of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane by NCI (1978) was selected as the basis of a cancer potency factor because it demonstrated a dose-responsive induction of carcinogenicity after exposure to 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane in both sexes of a susceptible species (B6C3F 1 mice). Tumor incidence data from the most sensitive sex was used (hepatocellular carcinomas in females). Methodology The linearized multistage procedure developed by Kenneth Crump and adopted by US EPA (1980) was used to calculate a slope factor of 2.0 E-1 (mg/kg/day) -1 from the NCI (1978) female B6C3F 1 mouse hepatocellular carcinoma incidence data. Calculation of the unit risk from the slope factor 509
assumed a body weight of 70 kg and an inspiration rate of 20 m 3 /day. US EPA has stated that the unit risk should not be used if the air concentration exceeds 200 µg/m 3 , since above this concentration the unit risk may not be appropriate. V. REFERENCES Hazardous Substance Data Bank (HSDB) 1994. National Library of Medicine, Bethesda MD (CD- ROM Version). Micromedix, Inc., Denver CO, Edition 22. International Agency for Research on Cancer 1979. 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man, Volume 20. IARC, Lyon, France, pp. 53-60. National Cancer Institute 1978. Bioassay of 1,1,2,2,-Tetrachloroethane for Possible Carcinogenicity. DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 78-827. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Norman Jr JE, Robinette CD, and Fraumeni Jr JF. 1981. The mortality experience of Army World War II chemical processing companies. J Occup Med 23:818-822. Theiss JC, Stoner GD, Shimkin MB and Weisburger, EK. 1977. Test for carcinogenicity of organic contaminants of United States drinking waters by pulmonary tumor response in strain A mice. Cancer Res 37:2717-2720. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1980. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Chlorinated Ethanes. Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Cincinnati, OH and Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Washington, DC. EPA 440/5-80- 029. NTIS PB 81117400. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1991. Integrated Risk Assessment System: 1,1,2,2- Tetrachloroethane. Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1994. 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane. Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC. 510
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Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Risk A
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Prepared by: John D. Budroe, Ph.D.
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This document is one of five docume
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TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE i INTRODU
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N-Nitrosodimethylamine 401 N-Nitros
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Hot Spots Unit Risk and Cancer Pote
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Additional ATES and PETS documents
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data. If several data sets (dose an
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US EPA Calculation of Carcinogenic
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exposure to a concentration of 1 µ
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incidences for each of the dose lev
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computes the surface area of a sphe
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Comparison of Hot Spots Cancer Unit
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Gold, L., de Veciana, M., Backman,
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Animal Studies Rats Woutersen et al
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ased on sufficient evidence of carc
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ACETAMIDE CAS No: 60-35-5 I. PHYSIC
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Methodology Expedited Proposition 6
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cancer mortality. However, US EPA (
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Table 2. Lung adenoma incidence in
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Table 3 (continued). Acrylamide-ind
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Robinson M, Bull RJ, Knutsen GL, Sh
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Also, a trend was observed correlat
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eported. Cause-specific expected de
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Bio/Dynamics Inc. conducted a study
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examination. Interim sacrifices wer
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Table 8. Tumor incidence in male an
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Gaffey WR and Strauss ME. 1981. A m
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(technical grade; 98% pure) by gava
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International Agency for Research o
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still alive in the low-dose control
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ANILINE CAS No: 62-53-3 I. PHYSICAL
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fibrosarcomas, stromal sarcomas, ca
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ARSENIC (INORGANIC) CAS No: 7440-38
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elationship between arsenic exposur
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al. (1988) did not induce lung tumo
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A risk assessment was also conducte
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Chen C, Chuang Y, You S, Lin T and
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Schrauzer G, White D, McGinness J,
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Table 1: Summary of epidemiologic s
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had at least one animal demonstrati
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mesothelioma, recommended lifetime
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National Institute for Occupational
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BENZENE CAS No: 71-43-2 I. PHYSICAL
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Animal Studies Available experiment
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Table 3: Summary of NTP bioassay re
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Table 4: Summary of benzene low-dos
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Maltoni C, Conti B and Cotti G. 198
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a benign tumor of the kidney. No ba
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al. (1968) found no tumors in lifet
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following relationship, where C(t 1
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Miakawa M. and Yoshida O. 1975. Pro
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human population and that BPDE-DNA
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demonstrated the tumor initiating a
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Table 4: Bronchoalveolar tumors fro
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Table 5: IARC groupings of PAHs, mi
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Table 6 (continued): IARC Group 3 P
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Potency Equivalency Factors (PEF) f
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This was rounded to a PEF of 0.1. 1
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experiment (Takayama et al., 1985)
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Deutsch-Wenzel RP, Brune H, Grimmer
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Krewski D, Thorslund T and Withey J
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
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Sorahan et al. (1983) studied cance
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Lijinsky W. 1986. Chronic bioassay
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the drinking water (Schroeder and M
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Table II. Effective dose, upper-bou
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BIS(2-CHLOROETHYL)ETHER CAS No: 111
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IV. DERIVATION OF CANCER POTENCY Ba
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BIS(CHLOROMETHYL)ETHER CAS No: 542-
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Table 1. Bis(chloromethyl)ether-ind
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Drew RT, Laskin S, Kuschner M and N
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ates for the 1968 U.S. male populat
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Table 1: Incidence of primary tumor
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National Institute of Occupational
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was less than 0.05 when controlling
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up period. The final cohort include
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If the cadmium-exposed workers incl
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on personnel records (20%); (3) eva
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were exposed to a continuous (23.5
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procedure (NLIN), the parameters we
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International Agency for Research o
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Two reports were published on cance
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Mendel rats, respectively), and sub
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Eschenbrenner A and Miller E. 1946.
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III. CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS Human Stu
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cancers, were less than expected. T
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and no cases of cancer (although cl
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There was a statistically significa
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NTP (1982a) also conducted an carci
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Several pathologists have independe
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hepatocellular adenoma/carcinoma tu
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carcinogenic potency may decline in
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Cochrane W, Singh J and Miles W. 19
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North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
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CHLORINATED PARAFFINS (average chai
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ased on dose-response data for beni
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chloroform in drinking water with k
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Overall, the present epidemiologica
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female dogs received toothpaste bas
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Calculated q 1 * values from the ab
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Hogan MD, Chi Py, Hoel DG and Mitch
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Table 1. Study design summary for N
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V. REFERENCES California Environmen
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toluidine. Followup of this subcoho
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feeding studies on by NCI (1979) us
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CHROMIUM (HEXAVALENT) CAS No: 18540
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expected rate may be inflated becau
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Oral Borneff et al. (1968) exposed
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CREOSOTE (COAL TAR-DERIVED) CAS No:
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from an inhalation exposure study (
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Table 1. Study design summary for N
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Table 1. Experimental design for ca
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Hazardous Substance Data Bank (HSDB
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Table 1: Tumor induction in Fischer
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Table 1. Experimental design of 2,4
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Additional analysis of these data b
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Jackson RJ, Greene CJ, Thomas JT, M
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Table 1. Tumor incidence in rats ex
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Girard R, Tolot F, Martin P and Bou
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exposed more than 16 years before t
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interpretation of dose extrapolatio
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1, 1-DICHLOROETHANE CAS No: 75-34-3
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Table 1b. Study design for carcinog
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National Cancer Institute (NCI) 197
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mice, hepatocellular carcinoma inci
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V. REFERENCES California Department
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DAB/day by gavage for the life of t
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2,4-DINITROTOLUENE CAS No: 121-14-2
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Ellis et al.(1979) (also reported b
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Final Statement of Reasons for OAL,
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to the small sample size and short
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In an inhalation study, Torkelson e
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V. REFERENCES American Conference o
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EPICHLOROHYDRIN CAS No: 106-89-8 I.
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espiratory tumors were noted in the
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Table 4. Epichlorohydrin-induced fo
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Konishi Y, Kawabata A, Denda A, Ike
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exposed to arsenicals for 20 months
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espectively (all statistically sign
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ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE CAS No: 107-06-
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Several factors have been suggested
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myelogenous leukemias (4 and 8 year
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statistically significant. CDHS not
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combined with the incidence in the
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incidence of primary brain tumors.
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Table 6 (continued): Organ/Sex Mali
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An Upper 95% Confidence Limit (UCL)
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ETHYLENE THIOUREA (ETU) CAS No: 96-
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male and female rats. Tumor inciden
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FORMALDEHYDE CAS No: 50-00-0 I. PHY
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presented an extension of a previou
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Methodology In developing a spectru
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Casanova M, Morgan KT, Steinhagen W
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Tobe M, Kaneko T, Uchida Y, Kamata
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Table 1. Hexachlorobenzene-induced
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50 pups (F 1 ) of each sex were ran
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Ertürk E, Lambrecht RW, Peters HA,
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Table 1. Liver hepatoma incidence i
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1988). An airborne unit risk factor
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HYDRAZINE CAS No: 302-01-2 I. PHYSI
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Methodology Inhalation A linearized
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LEAD AND LEAD COMPOUNDS (INORGANIC)
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and other occupational carcinogens
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y inhalation is similar for rats an
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Goyer RA. 1992. Nephrotoxicity and
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LINDANE (g-Hexachlorocyclohexane) C
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Using these relationships, a human
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METHYL TERT-BUTYL ETHER (MTBE) CAS
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Tumor incidences according to the r
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kidney changes indicative of chroni
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Interspecies scaling for oral doses
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Table 4 (continued): Dose Response
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Experimental Pathology Laboratories
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Animal Studies Male and female HaM/
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Gold L, Sawyer C, Magaw R, Backman
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Using the statistical tests (one-ta
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Table 1: Methylene chloride-induced
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Significant treatment-related incre
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National Toxicology Program (NTP) 1
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noted; however, the study duration
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Crump KS, Howe RB, Van Landingham C
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Table 1. Michler’s ketone-induced
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NICKEL AND NICKEL COMPOUNDS CAS No:
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the high exposure group was 14.0. A
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male and 121 female rats, was expos
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2.1 - 2.6 × 10 -4 (µg/m 3 ) -1 .
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The increased incidence of bladder
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A linearized multistage procedure w
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N-NITROSO-N-METHYLETHYLAMINE CAS No
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propylamine in drinking water at 0.
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N-NITROSODIETHYLAMINE CAS No: 55-18
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Table 2. Treatment groups, concentr
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California Department of Health Ser
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animals and the second generation t
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ationale for selection of the OEHHA
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A unit risk value based upon air co
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N-NITROSODIPHENYLAMINE CAS No: 86-3
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Methodology Dosage estimates of NDP
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Crump KS, Howe RB. 1984. The multis
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Table 1. P-Nitrosodiphenylamine-ind
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N-NITROSOMORPHOLINE CAS No: 59-89-2
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N-NITROSOPIPERIDINE CAS No: 100-75-
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Table 3. N-Nitrosopiperidine-induce
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Crump KS, Howe RB, Van Landingham C
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testicular tumors were noted in the
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PARTICULATE MATTER FROM DIESEL-FUEL
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etired railroad workers who had had
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employment (χ 2 test for trend: p
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elevated smoking-adjusted risk esti
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Miln
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Damb
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Burn
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Raff
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Table 1 (continued): Epidemiologica
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Table 1 (continued): Epidemiologica
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Wegm
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Animal Studies Section 6.1 (Animal
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The variability, or heterogeneity,
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estimate for those studies for whic
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Figure 1: Estimates of Relative Ris
Page 467 and 468: q 1 * = Excess relative risk × CA
Page 469 and 470: Table 3: Number of Workers in the E
Page 471 and 472: u nexposed workers at zero concentr
Page 473 and 474: for each µg/m 3 of diesel exhaust
Page 475 and 476: Table 4: Values from Unit Risk for
Page 477 and 478: their findings that a reasonable es
Page 479 and 480: Garshick E, Schenker M, Woskie S an
Page 481 and 482: Lewis T, Green, FH MW, Burg J and L
Page 483 and 484: Rothman K. 1986. Modern epidemiolog
Page 485 and 486: PENTACHLOROPHENOL CAS No: 87-86-5 I
Page 487 and 488: The default lifespan for mice is 10
Page 489 and 490: documented. An excess risk from ski
Page 491 and 492: B6C3F 1 mice and F344/N rats were e
Page 493 and 494: This model, rather than a time depe
Page 495 and 496: POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBs) CA
Page 497 and 498: several benign adenomatous lesions
Page 499 and 500: Ito et al. (1973) exposed groups of
Page 501 and 502: could not be characterized by chlor
Page 503 and 504: exposure (all pathways and mixtures
Page 505 and 506: National Toxicology Program 1993. T
Page 507 and 508: Table 1. Potassium bromate-induced
Page 509 and 510: 1,3-PROPANE SULTONE CAS No: 1120-71
Page 511 and 512: IV. DERIVATION OF CANCER POTENCY Ba
Page 513 and 514: PROPYLENE OXIDE CAS No: 75-56-9 I.
Page 515 and 516: oxide. In the NTP carcinogenicity s
Page 517: 1,1,2,2-TETRACHLOROETHANE CAS No: 7
Page 521 and 522: total); an untreated control group
Page 523 and 524: TOLUENE DIISOCYANATE CAS No: 26471-
Page 525 and 526: Animal Studies The National Toxicol
Page 527 and 528: Mortillaro PT and Schiavon M. 1982.
Page 529 and 530: male or female rats. Increases in h
Page 531 and 532: TRICHLOROETHYLENE CAS No: 79-01-6 I
Page 533 and 534: A mortality analysis of a cohort of
Page 535 and 536: elative to that of the controls whi
Page 537 and 538: applied or metabolized. The range o
Page 539 and 540: Katz RM and Jowett D. 1981. Female
Page 541 and 542: 10,000 ppm 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in
Page 543 and 544: IV. DERIVATION OF CANCER POTENCY Ba
Page 545 and 546: Bionetics Research Laboratories. 19
Page 547 and 548: control; females: 6/10 exposed, 0/1
Page 549 and 550: over controls (p < 0.04). Other tum
Page 551 and 552: was increased (100/314 exposed vs.
Page 553 and 554: Table 3. Cancer potency estimates f
Page 555 and 556: Crouch E. 1983. Uncertainties in in
Page 557 and 558: VINYL CHLORIDE CAS No: 75-01-4 I. P
Page 559 and 560: Table 1 (continued): A Summary of E
Page 561 and 562: al., 1983). Histopathology of all o
Page 563 and 564: Table 3: Tumor incidences in 100 pp
Page 565 and 566: experiment, animals were exposed to
Page 567 and 568: Experiment BT1 Most previous risk a
Page 569 and 570:
No statistical analyses of mortalit
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Table 11 gives unit risk estimates
Page 573 and 574:
Bertazzi PA, Villa A, Foa V, Saia B
Page 575 and 576:
Nicholson WJ, Hammond EC, Seidman H
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immunotoxicity, reproductive toxici
Page 579 and 580:
scheme. TEFs for two major noncance
Page 581 and 582:
NATO/CCMS (1988a) Pilot Study on In
Page 583 and 584:
Table 2 Toxicity Equivalency Factor
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Table 4 A Comparison of CTEF- and I
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Office of Environmental Health Haza
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Group 4: The agent is probably not
Page 591 and 592:
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT FOR DESC
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US EPA IRIS Inhalation Unit Risk an
Page 595 and 596:
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT FOR DESC
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as appropriate, and revise IRIS fil
Page 599 and 600:
Chemical Exposure Route Study Type
Page 601 and 602:
Page 603 and 604:
Page 605 and 606:
Methyl tert-butyl ether p. 5: Added
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