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exposed to 600 ppm TCE developed kidney adenocarcinomas that, although lacking statistical significance, must be considered biologically significant due to their rarity. In experiment BT305, Swiss mice were exposed to TCE at a concentration of 100, 300 or 600 ppm for 7 hours/day, 5 days/week, for 78 weeks. Males exposed to the 2 higher levels showed statistically significant increases in the incidence of pulmonary tumors (27/90 at 600 ppm, 23/90 at 300 ppm) relative to that of the control group (11/90). Males exposed to 600 ppm TCE also had a higher frequency of hepatomas (13/90, p < 0.05) than that of controls (4/90). Females did not show any significant response to TCE exposure in this bioassay. Bioassays BT306 and BT306-bis were both conducted with B6C3Fl mice under similar exposure conditions as above. A dose-related increase in the incidence of pulmonary tumors was observed in females but was significant (p < 0.05) only at 600 ppm (15/90) relative to the control group (4/90). IV. DERIVATION OF CANCER POTENCY Basis for Cancer Potency Based on their designation of "limited evidence" of carcinogenicity in animals and "inadequate evidence" of carcinogenicity in humans, IARC (1984) determined that TCE cannot be classified as to its carcinogenicity to humans. US EPA placed TCE in Group B2, a probable human carcinogen (US EPA, 1985). CDHS staff reviewed the literature and disagreed with IARC’s conclusion. CDHS considers TCE to be carcinogenic and not to have a threshold for carcinogenicity (CDHS, 1990a). A quantitative risk assessment for TCE was conducted by CDHS (1990a) using the dose-response data for carcinogenicity from four inhalation studies in mice (Bell et al., 1978; Henschler et al., 1980; Fukada et al., 1983; Maltoni et al., 1986). Methodology The metabolized dose for TCE for each of the studies evaluated was determined using a physiologicallybased pharmacokinetic model (PBPK) and used for the calculation of carcinogenic potency. Because absorbed TCE is completely metabolized, metabolized dose mirrors applied dose. The metabolized dose of TCE was included because it takes into account uptake and distribution factors. The data obtained for uptake and distribution factors are in good agreement with experimental results obtained with human volunteers. Interspecies variation was accounted for by utilizing surface area scaling. Carcinogenic responses in the inhalation studies included increased incidences of hepatocellular carcinoma and adenoma in male mice and increased incidences of lung adenocarcinomas and malignant lymphomas in female mice. Since most tumors were discovered at the time of sacrifice rather than at the time of their appearance, the GLOBAL79 and GLOBAL86 computer programs for the linearized multistage modes, without a time-to-tumor factor, were used for the low-dose risk assessment. The above adjustments to the animals’ exposure results in a lifetime time-weighted average dose, either 527
applied or metabolized. The range of 95% upper confidence limit (UCL) potency estimates (q 1 *) obtained using the human equivalent applied and metabolized doses and the tumor incidences in the four inhalation studies notes above is 0.006 to 0.098 (mg/kg-day) -1 . Based on the same data, the individual risk for a 70-year lifetime exposure of a 70 kg person breathing 20 m 3 per day of ambient air containing 1 µg/m 3 (0.19 ppb) of TCE is 8 × 10 -7 to 1 × 10 -5 . A best estimate of the unit risk was obtained by taking the geometric mean of the unit risks from the four inhalation studies. From the metabolized dose approach a unit risk of 2.0 × 10 -6 (µg/m 3 ) -1 was obtained, and from the applied dose a unit risk of 3.0 × 10 -6 (µg/m 3 ) -1 was obtained. CDHS (1990b) chose the cancer unit risk value of 2.0 × 10 -6 (µg/m 3 ) -1 calculated using the metabolized dose approach as the “best value” for TCE inhalation cancer unit risk Table 1: Dose-response data used by CDHS (1990a) in quantitative risk assessment for trichloroethylene exposure 1 Study Species / sex Strain Tumor Type Daily experimental applied concentration LTWA Metabolized Dose 2 (mg/kg-day) Tumor Incidence 3 Bell et al., 1978 hepatocellular 0 ppm – 6 hr 0 20/99 Mice (male) carcinoma or 100 ppm – 6 hr 42.3 35/95 B6C3F 1 adenoma 300 ppm – 6 hr 127 38/100 600 ppm – 6 hr 254 53/97 Henschler et al., 1980 malignant 0 ppm – 6 hr 0 9/29 Mice (female) lymphoma 100 ppm – 6 hr 33.2 17/30 Han:NMRI 500 ppm – 6 hr 166 18/28 Fakuda et al., 1983 lung 0 ppm – 7 hr 0 1/49 Mice (female) adenocarcinoma 50 ppm – 7 hr 25.8 3/50 ICR 150 ppm – 7 hr 77.4 8/50 450 ppm – 7 hr 232 7/46 Maltoni et al., 1986 malignant 0 ppm – 7 hr 0 4/90 Mice (male) hepatoma 100 ppm – 7 hr 35.3 2/90 Swiss 300 ppm – 7 hr 106 8/90 600 ppm – 7 hr 212 13/90 1 Source: CDHS (1990a). 2 Lifetime, time-weighted-average metabolized dose. 3 Tumor incidence denominator excludes animals dying before the occurrence of the first corresponding tumor type observed in the NCI (1976) and NTP (1983) studies. See CDHS (1990a) for more detail. 528
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Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Risk A
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Prepared by: John D. Budroe, Ph.D.
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This document is one of five docume
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TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE i INTRODU
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N-Nitrosodimethylamine 401 N-Nitros
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Hot Spots Unit Risk and Cancer Pote
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Additional ATES and PETS documents
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data. If several data sets (dose an
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US EPA Calculation of Carcinogenic
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exposure to a concentration of 1 µ
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incidences for each of the dose lev
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computes the surface area of a sphe
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Comparison of Hot Spots Cancer Unit
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Gold, L., de Veciana, M., Backman,
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Animal Studies Rats Woutersen et al
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ased on sufficient evidence of carc
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ACETAMIDE CAS No: 60-35-5 I. PHYSIC
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Methodology Expedited Proposition 6
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cancer mortality. However, US EPA (
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Table 2. Lung adenoma incidence in
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Table 3 (continued). Acrylamide-ind
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Robinson M, Bull RJ, Knutsen GL, Sh
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Also, a trend was observed correlat
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eported. Cause-specific expected de
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Bio/Dynamics Inc. conducted a study
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examination. Interim sacrifices wer
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Table 8. Tumor incidence in male an
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Gaffey WR and Strauss ME. 1981. A m
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(technical grade; 98% pure) by gava
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International Agency for Research o
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still alive in the low-dose control
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ANILINE CAS No: 62-53-3 I. PHYSICAL
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fibrosarcomas, stromal sarcomas, ca
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ARSENIC (INORGANIC) CAS No: 7440-38
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elationship between arsenic exposur
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al. (1988) did not induce lung tumo
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A risk assessment was also conducte
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Chen C, Chuang Y, You S, Lin T and
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Schrauzer G, White D, McGinness J,
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Table 1: Summary of epidemiologic s
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had at least one animal demonstrati
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mesothelioma, recommended lifetime
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National Institute for Occupational
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BENZENE CAS No: 71-43-2 I. PHYSICAL
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Animal Studies Available experiment
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Table 3: Summary of NTP bioassay re
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Table 4: Summary of benzene low-dos
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Maltoni C, Conti B and Cotti G. 198
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a benign tumor of the kidney. No ba
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al. (1968) found no tumors in lifet
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following relationship, where C(t 1
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Miakawa M. and Yoshida O. 1975. Pro
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human population and that BPDE-DNA
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demonstrated the tumor initiating a
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Table 4: Bronchoalveolar tumors fro
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Table 5: IARC groupings of PAHs, mi
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Table 6 (continued): IARC Group 3 P
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Potency Equivalency Factors (PEF) f
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This was rounded to a PEF of 0.1. 1
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experiment (Takayama et al., 1985)
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Deutsch-Wenzel RP, Brune H, Grimmer
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Krewski D, Thorslund T and Withey J
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
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Sorahan et al. (1983) studied cance
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Lijinsky W. 1986. Chronic bioassay
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the drinking water (Schroeder and M
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Table II. Effective dose, upper-bou
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BIS(2-CHLOROETHYL)ETHER CAS No: 111
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IV. DERIVATION OF CANCER POTENCY Ba
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BIS(CHLOROMETHYL)ETHER CAS No: 542-
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Table 1. Bis(chloromethyl)ether-ind
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Drew RT, Laskin S, Kuschner M and N
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ates for the 1968 U.S. male populat
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Table 1: Incidence of primary tumor
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National Institute of Occupational
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was less than 0.05 when controlling
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up period. The final cohort include
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If the cadmium-exposed workers incl
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on personnel records (20%); (3) eva
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were exposed to a continuous (23.5
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procedure (NLIN), the parameters we
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International Agency for Research o
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Two reports were published on cance
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Mendel rats, respectively), and sub
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Eschenbrenner A and Miller E. 1946.
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III. CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS Human Stu
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cancers, were less than expected. T
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and no cases of cancer (although cl
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There was a statistically significa
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NTP (1982a) also conducted an carci
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Several pathologists have independe
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hepatocellular adenoma/carcinoma tu
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carcinogenic potency may decline in
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Cochrane W, Singh J and Miles W. 19
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North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
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CHLORINATED PARAFFINS (average chai
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ased on dose-response data for beni
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chloroform in drinking water with k
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Overall, the present epidemiologica
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female dogs received toothpaste bas
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Calculated q 1 * values from the ab
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Hogan MD, Chi Py, Hoel DG and Mitch
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Table 1. Study design summary for N
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V. REFERENCES California Environmen
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toluidine. Followup of this subcoho
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feeding studies on by NCI (1979) us
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CHROMIUM (HEXAVALENT) CAS No: 18540
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expected rate may be inflated becau
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Oral Borneff et al. (1968) exposed
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CREOSOTE (COAL TAR-DERIVED) CAS No:
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from an inhalation exposure study (
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Table 1. Study design summary for N
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Table 1. Experimental design for ca
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Hazardous Substance Data Bank (HSDB
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Table 1: Tumor induction in Fischer
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Table 1. Experimental design of 2,4
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Additional analysis of these data b
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Jackson RJ, Greene CJ, Thomas JT, M
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Table 1. Tumor incidence in rats ex
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Girard R, Tolot F, Martin P and Bou
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exposed more than 16 years before t
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interpretation of dose extrapolatio
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1, 1-DICHLOROETHANE CAS No: 75-34-3
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Table 1b. Study design for carcinog
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National Cancer Institute (NCI) 197
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mice, hepatocellular carcinoma inci
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V. REFERENCES California Department
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DAB/day by gavage for the life of t
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2,4-DINITROTOLUENE CAS No: 121-14-2
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Ellis et al.(1979) (also reported b
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Final Statement of Reasons for OAL,
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to the small sample size and short
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In an inhalation study, Torkelson e
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V. REFERENCES American Conference o
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EPICHLOROHYDRIN CAS No: 106-89-8 I.
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espiratory tumors were noted in the
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Table 4. Epichlorohydrin-induced fo
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Konishi Y, Kawabata A, Denda A, Ike
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exposed to arsenicals for 20 months
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espectively (all statistically sign
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ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE CAS No: 107-06-
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Several factors have been suggested
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myelogenous leukemias (4 and 8 year
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statistically significant. CDHS not
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combined with the incidence in the
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incidence of primary brain tumors.
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Table 6 (continued): Organ/Sex Mali
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An Upper 95% Confidence Limit (UCL)
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ETHYLENE THIOUREA (ETU) CAS No: 96-
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male and female rats. Tumor inciden
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FORMALDEHYDE CAS No: 50-00-0 I. PHY
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presented an extension of a previou
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Methodology In developing a spectru
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Casanova M, Morgan KT, Steinhagen W
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Tobe M, Kaneko T, Uchida Y, Kamata
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Table 1. Hexachlorobenzene-induced
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50 pups (F 1 ) of each sex were ran
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Ertürk E, Lambrecht RW, Peters HA,
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Table 1. Liver hepatoma incidence i
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1988). An airborne unit risk factor
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HYDRAZINE CAS No: 302-01-2 I. PHYSI
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Methodology Inhalation A linearized
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LEAD AND LEAD COMPOUNDS (INORGANIC)
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and other occupational carcinogens
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y inhalation is similar for rats an
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Goyer RA. 1992. Nephrotoxicity and
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LINDANE (g-Hexachlorocyclohexane) C
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Using these relationships, a human
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METHYL TERT-BUTYL ETHER (MTBE) CAS
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Tumor incidences according to the r
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kidney changes indicative of chroni
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Interspecies scaling for oral doses
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Table 4 (continued): Dose Response
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Experimental Pathology Laboratories
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Animal Studies Male and female HaM/
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Gold L, Sawyer C, Magaw R, Backman
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Using the statistical tests (one-ta
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Table 1: Methylene chloride-induced
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Significant treatment-related incre
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National Toxicology Program (NTP) 1
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noted; however, the study duration
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Crump KS, Howe RB, Van Landingham C
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Table 1. Michler’s ketone-induced
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NICKEL AND NICKEL COMPOUNDS CAS No:
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the high exposure group was 14.0. A
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male and 121 female rats, was expos
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2.1 - 2.6 × 10 -4 (µg/m 3 ) -1 .
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The increased incidence of bladder
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A linearized multistage procedure w
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N-NITROSO-N-METHYLETHYLAMINE CAS No
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propylamine in drinking water at 0.
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N-NITROSODIETHYLAMINE CAS No: 55-18
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Table 2. Treatment groups, concentr
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California Department of Health Ser
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animals and the second generation t
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ationale for selection of the OEHHA
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A unit risk value based upon air co
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N-NITROSODIPHENYLAMINE CAS No: 86-3
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Methodology Dosage estimates of NDP
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Crump KS, Howe RB. 1984. The multis
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Table 1. P-Nitrosodiphenylamine-ind
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N-NITROSOMORPHOLINE CAS No: 59-89-2
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N-NITROSOPIPERIDINE CAS No: 100-75-
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Table 3. N-Nitrosopiperidine-induce
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Crump KS, Howe RB, Van Landingham C
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testicular tumors were noted in the
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PARTICULATE MATTER FROM DIESEL-FUEL
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etired railroad workers who had had
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employment (χ 2 test for trend: p
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elevated smoking-adjusted risk esti
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Miln
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Damb
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Burn
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Raff
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Table 1 (continued): Epidemiologica
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Table 1 (continued): Epidemiologica
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Table 1 (continued): Reference Wegm
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Animal Studies Section 6.1 (Animal
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The variability, or heterogeneity,
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estimate for those studies for whic
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Figure 1: Estimates of Relative Ris
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q 1 * = Excess relative risk × CA
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Table 3: Number of Workers in the E
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u nexposed workers at zero concentr
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for each µg/m 3 of diesel exhaust
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Table 4: Values from Unit Risk for
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their findings that a reasonable es
Page 479 and 480:
Garshick E, Schenker M, Woskie S an
Page 481 and 482:
Lewis T, Green, FH MW, Burg J and L
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Rothman K. 1986. Modern epidemiolog
Page 485 and 486: PENTACHLOROPHENOL CAS No: 87-86-5 I
Page 487 and 488: The default lifespan for mice is 10
Page 489 and 490: documented. An excess risk from ski
Page 491 and 492: B6C3F 1 mice and F344/N rats were e
Page 493 and 494: This model, rather than a time depe
Page 495 and 496: POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBs) CA
Page 497 and 498: several benign adenomatous lesions
Page 499 and 500: Ito et al. (1973) exposed groups of
Page 501 and 502: could not be characterized by chlor
Page 503 and 504: exposure (all pathways and mixtures
Page 505 and 506: National Toxicology Program 1993. T
Page 507 and 508: Table 1. Potassium bromate-induced
Page 509 and 510: 1,3-PROPANE SULTONE CAS No: 1120-71
Page 511 and 512: IV. DERIVATION OF CANCER POTENCY Ba
Page 513 and 514: PROPYLENE OXIDE CAS No: 75-56-9 I.
Page 515 and 516: oxide. In the NTP carcinogenicity s
Page 517 and 518: 1,1,2,2-TETRACHLOROETHANE CAS No: 7
Page 519 and 520: assumed a body weight of 70 kg and
Page 521 and 522: total); an untreated control group
Page 523 and 524: TOLUENE DIISOCYANATE CAS No: 26471-
Page 525 and 526: Animal Studies The National Toxicol
Page 527 and 528: Mortillaro PT and Schiavon M. 1982.
Page 529 and 530: male or female rats. Increases in h
Page 531 and 532: TRICHLOROETHYLENE CAS No: 79-01-6 I
Page 533 and 534: A mortality analysis of a cohort of
Page 535: elative to that of the controls whi
Page 539 and 540: Katz RM and Jowett D. 1981. Female
Page 541 and 542: 10,000 ppm 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in
Page 543 and 544: IV. DERIVATION OF CANCER POTENCY Ba
Page 545 and 546: Bionetics Research Laboratories. 19
Page 547 and 548: control; females: 6/10 exposed, 0/1
Page 549 and 550: over controls (p < 0.04). Other tum
Page 551 and 552: was increased (100/314 exposed vs.
Page 553 and 554: Table 3. Cancer potency estimates f
Page 555 and 556: Crouch E. 1983. Uncertainties in in
Page 557 and 558: VINYL CHLORIDE CAS No: 75-01-4 I. P
Page 559 and 560: Table 1 (continued): A Summary of E
Page 561 and 562: al., 1983). Histopathology of all o
Page 563 and 564: Table 3: Tumor incidences in 100 pp
Page 565 and 566: experiment, animals were exposed to
Page 567 and 568: Experiment BT1 Most previous risk a
Page 569 and 570: No statistical analyses of mortalit
Page 571 and 572: Table 11 gives unit risk estimates
Page 573 and 574: Bertazzi PA, Villa A, Foa V, Saia B
Page 575 and 576: Nicholson WJ, Hammond EC, Seidman H
Page 577 and 578: immunotoxicity, reproductive toxici
Page 579 and 580: scheme. TEFs for two major noncance
Page 581 and 582: NATO/CCMS (1988a) Pilot Study on In
Page 583 and 584: Table 2 Toxicity Equivalency Factor
Page 585 and 586: Table 4 A Comparison of CTEF- and I
Page 587 and 588:
Office of Environmental Health Haza
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Group 4: The agent is probably not
Page 591 and 592:
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT FOR DESC
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US EPA IRIS Inhalation Unit Risk an
Page 595 and 596:
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT FOR DESC
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as appropriate, and revise IRIS fil
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Chemical Exposure Route Study Type
Page 601 and 602:
Page 603 and 604:
Page 605 and 606:
Methyl tert-butyl ether p. 5: Added
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