capitalism

230 Hume, David (1711–1776)
Prussia: Beamten-Liberalismus, or civil servants’ liberalism.
Enlightened persons from the royal bureaucracy tried
to modernize the country from the top down. Among them
were Baron vom Stein, the father of German local selfgovernment.
Von Humboldt became minister for Public
Instruction in 1809 and instituted a series of reforms that
proved to be outstandingly efficient and durable. In fact, in
Germany today von Humboldt is mainly remembered for
these reforms. A multitiered system of educational institutions
was introduced—from the elementary schools to the
university level, all of which were aimed to encourage a
sense of individual autonomy and independence of thought.
As von Humboldt had already stated in his The Limits of
State Action, self-development and individuality were the
central goals of education.
Beginning in 1810, von Humboldt was the chief
Prussian diplomat in Vienna; in 1813, he became ambassador
to the British Court. In 1819, he became minister for
Estate (Diet) Affairs, but soon resigned in protest against
Metternich’s Karlsberg Decrees, which introduced more
censorship and other repressive policies. At that point, he
decided to withdraw from politics and devoted his life to
his family and to academic research until his death in 1835.
His political thought can be found in The Limits of State
Action: “The true end of Man,” he wrote,
or that which is prescribed by the eternal and immutable
dictates of reason, and not suggested by vague and transient
desires, is the highest and most harmonious development
of his powers to a complete and consistent whole.
Freedom is the first and indispensable condition which the
possibility of such a development pre-supposes; but there
is besides another essential—intimately connected with
freedom, it is true—a variety of situations. Even the most
free and self-reliant of men is hindered in his development,
when set in a monotonous situation.
Thus, he concluded that only a minimal state that
secured internal and external peace and security was legitimate.
A state that provided for more would inevitably
encourage conformism and uniformity. Von Humboldt’s
concept of self-education is distinguishable from similar
traditional Aristotelian concepts. Aristotelian essentialism
aimed at humans developing themselves as the realization
of a general ideal of mankind, whereas von Humboldt
believed in the development of the individual with all his
individual peculiarities. Von Humboldt’s views deeply
influenced John Stuart Mill, who had read the first translation
of The Limits of State Action when it appeared in 1854.
In his famous treatise, On Liberty (1859), Mill often
referred to von Humboldt as his intellectual inspiration who
helped him to overcome his narrow utilitaristic philosophy.
There is little reason to doubt von Humboldt’s liberal
convictions throughout his life, despite his role in directing
a system of state education. He never embraced
nationalism, like so many of his previously enlightened
liberal contemporaries, and he always stayed in touch
with liberal circles throughout Europe, especially in
France. Indeed, Benjamin Constant continued to remain
politically close to him. With respect to his educational
reforms, Humboldt simply had to accept certain constraints.
Although he was in no position to privatize the
whole educational system, he managed to make it accessible
to everyone and cleared it of privilege and patronage.
The autonomy and freedom of all educational institutions
was the cornerstone of his reforms.
His role as education minister was consistent with his
early liberal ideas. These were radical in their final vision,
but they also were gradualist and reformist in their practical
outlook. Self-organization and voluntary cooperation to
him were more desirable than compulsory state-dominated
association. Von Humboldt’s individualism was not atomistic.
In the process of self-education, he maintained, one
learns and rises to the level where such a cultivated voluntary
self-organization is possible. Therefore, a liberal order
could never be imposed on the people, but would grow with
their capabilities.
This insight also is reflected in his later publications,
such as the Memorandum on the German Constitution
(1813), where he warned of the nationalistic enthusiasm for
a centralized unitary state and advocated a decentralized
constitution for all Germany that would secure freedom and
cultural diversity to the citizens.
See also Civil Society; French Revolution; Limited Government;
Rights, Natural
Further Readings
Humboldt, Wilhelm von. The Limits of State Action. J. W. Burrows,
ed. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1993.
Knoll, Joachim H., and Horst Siebert. Wilhelm von Humboldt:
Politician and Educationist. Bonn: Inter Nationes, 1967.
Sweet, Paul R. Wilhelm von Humboldt. A Biography. Cleveland:
Ohio State University Press, 1978.
HUME, DAVID (1711–1776)
DD
David Hume, a Scottish philosopher, was one of the most
highly regarded thinkers who wrote in the English language.
Although his contributions to the theory of knowledge
as well as to moral and political philosophy form the
basis of this high opinion, he also was the author of a highly
acclaimed History of England in six volumes and many
essays on various literary, moral, and political topics.