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Italian Fiscal Theorists 259 blindfolded to the reality of politics. As the classical economics of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and J. S. Mill entered Italian thought through the intercession of Francesco Ferrara in the 1850s, we find the origins of a specific tradition in fiscal theory that extended over most of a century. That tradition embodied analyses of politics that were both more comprehensive and more sophisticated than anything published by English-language scholars before the mid-20th century. Works in that tradition also were more “scientific” than their English-language counterparts in the sense that normative elements were deliberately excluded. The contributions of the fiscal theorists in that tradition are easily summarized. Beyond Ferrara, the important names here include those of de Viti de Marco, Pantaleoni, Einaudi, Barone, Puviani, Fasiani, Cosciani, Griziotti, and Montemartini, a partial listing, with Pareto looming as an indirect influence in the background. First and foremost, the Italian tradition incorporated the elementary recognition that some model or theory of politics must inform any discourse about taxing and public spending if that discourse is to have any impact on prospects for ultimate reform. Analyses of this or that tax in terms of the economists’ orthodox efficiency criteria are meaningless until and unless the processes and institutions through which taxes are levied are specified. Relatedly, and equally important, one side of the fiscal account cannot be analyzed separately from the other. Taxes raise revenues which governments spend, either to finance goods or to make transfers, and this spending side of the account exerts effects comparable to those on the taxing side. Italian scholars examined politics in two parallel models: that of the monopoly or coercive state and that of the cooperative or democratic state. The basic treatises of de Viti de Marco and Fasiani explicitly presented this dual approach. As the coercive authority of the state is confronted, the taxpayer necessarily reacts privately within the limits of the constraints exogenously imposed. At the same time, however, in any political setting purporting to be democratic, the individual may sense, at least indirectly, a role as a potential participant in the collective decision processes that ultimately determine the allocation of fiscal constraints. The contrasting models of state authority may be separately developed. How would the monopoly state, freed from the effects of direct feedback from a representative democracy, behave fiscally? That is the question that prompted Amilcare Puviani to develop his concept of fiscal illusion. Such a monopoly state, always aiming at securing general support from members of the public, would seek to minimize the felt burden of taxes and maximize the felt benefits of its outlays. Indirect and hidden taxes would be preferred over direct and explicit levies. Taxes would, when possible, be associated with pleasurable events, and a multiplicity of small levies would be preferred to a consolidated imposition. Although not imagined by Puviani, withholding of taxes at source would almost ideally fit his criteria. Public outlay would be of the “bread and circuses” variety (“pork” in its modern form). Officials would spend much time in ribbon-cutting ceremonies. Opportunity costs would never enter the lexicon of political rhetoric. It may perhaps seem paradoxical that, at the same time models of the coercive fiscal authority were treated as central elements in the Italian tradition, there was widespread recognition that collectively financed services were classified as sources of product value. De Viti de Marco reckoned that the services of the state should be placed alongside labor, land, and capital as factor inputs in the generation of valued output. The Italian fiscal theorists seem to have totally rejected Adam Smith’s relegation of collective services to the category of the unproductive. Luigi Einaudi (who became president of the Italian Republic after World War II) deserves special mention for his long-time advocacy of a completely general flat-rate tax on all units of income, without exception. His argument was straightforward. Each unit of earned income carries against it a claim by the state for the publicly supplied productive services that made the income possible. There is no justification for differentiation or discrimination among sources or uses of income. Implicit in Einaudi’s proposal is recognition of the efficiency gains to be expected from the elimination of rent-seeking efforts to secure special treatment. Einaudi was foremost among those who criticized the practice of analyzing taxes independent of spending, referring to the imposta grandine, taxes treated as hailstorm damage. The Italian fiscal theorists were systemic in their approach to the subject matter at hand, which was separately placed in university curricula. They were not writing as Marshallian neoclassical economists who used shifts in tax constraints to illustrate the basic logic of partial equilibrium theory. They were motivated to ask, and did ask the basic questions: What is the state? To what extent is the state separated from the citizenry? What are the motivations of those who act as decision makers for the collectivity? To what degree can collective action be factored down into participatory roles for individuals subject to such action? It should not be surprising that those fiscal theorists were realists, rather than romantics in their evaluation of political processes. In the English-language literature, both academic and public attitudes have, almost literally, spent the half century after World War II “catching up” with their Italian peers. See also Classical Economics; Coercion; Taxation; Welfare State JB
260 Italian Fiscal Theorists Further Readings Buchanan, James M. “La scienza delle finanze: The Italian Tradition in Fiscal Theory.” Fiscal Theory and Political Economy. James M. Buchanan, ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960. Cosciani, Cesare. Principii di Scienza delle Finanze. Turin: Unione Tipografico Beditrice, 1953. De Viti de Marco, Antonio. First Principles of Public Finance. E. P. Marget, trans. London: Jonathan Cape, 1936. Einaudi, Luigi. Opere di Luigi Einaudi: Vol. 1. Saggi sol Risparmio e L’Imposta. Turin: Einaudi, 1958. Fasiani, Mauro. Principii di Scienza delle Finanze. 2 vols. Turin: G. Giappichelli Editore, 1951. Ferrara, Francesco. Opera Complete. Vol. 2B5. Rome: Banca Italia, 1955. Musgrave, Richard A., and Alan T. Peacock. Classics in the Theory of Public Finance. London: Macmillan, 1958.
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The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
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The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
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Contents List of Entries Reader’s
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viii The Encyclopedia of Libertaria
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x The Encyclopedia of Libertarianis
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xii The Encyclopedia of Libertarian
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xiv The Encyclopedia of Libertarian
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Contributors AC Andrew Coulson Cato
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xviii The Encyclopedia of Libertari
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Editor’s Introduction In preparin
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Editor’s Introduction xxiii I alo
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xxvi The Encyclopedia of Libertaria
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xxviii The Encyclopedia of Libertar
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xxx The Encyclopedia of Libertarian
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xxxii The Encyclopedia of Libertari
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xxxiv The Encyclopedia of Libertari
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xxxvi The Encyclopedia of Libertari
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A ABOLITIONISM Abolitionism is the
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Abortion 3 The rise of the American
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Adams, John (1735-1826) 5 required
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Affirmative Action 7 designed to ac
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American Revolution 9 throughout th
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Anarchism 11 defense. The easiest w
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Anarcho-Capitalism 13 Molinari, Gus
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Antitrust 15 who believed deeply in
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Antitrust 17 Nor are firms protecte
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Arts and Public Support 19 as ratio
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Assurance and Trust 21 Kammen, Mich
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B BANKING, AUSTRIAN THEORY OF The f
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Bastiat, Frédéric (1801-1850) 25
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Bauer, Peter (1915-2002) 27 his boo
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Becker, Gary S. (1930- ) 29 of Chic
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Bentham, Jeremy (1748-1832) 31 maxi
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Bioethics 33 (1833) that the Bill o
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Bioethics 35 sufficient guide for l
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Branden, Nathaniel (1930- ) 37 the
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Brown, John (1800-1859) 39 also led
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Buckle, Henry Thomas (1821-1862) 41
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Burke, Edmund (1729-1797) 43 bureau
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C CAMPAIGN FINANCE Prior to the lat
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Cantillon, Richard (c. 1680-1734) 4
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Capitalism 49 the argument in equal
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Capital Punishment 51 increase in p
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Capital Punishment 53 Proponents te
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Cato’s Letters 55 Independent Whi
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Charity/Friendly Societies 57 speec
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Children 59 Green, David G. Working
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Childs, Roy A. (1949-1992) 61 philo
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Cities 63 be accomplished only by a
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Cities 65 diversity and independenc
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Civil Society 67 Sassen, Saskia. Ci
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Civil War, U.S. 69 Others reject hi
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Classical Economics 71 attorney in
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Coase, Ronald H. (1910- ) 73 connec
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Coercion 75 As a consequence of thi
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Coke, Edward (1552-1634) 77 England
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Common Law 79 view the key explanat
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Communism 81 level of generality. D
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Communism 83 Recent research by Ric
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Competition 85 efforts between sell
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Condorcet, Marquis de (1743-1794) 8
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Conscription 89 A significant devel
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Consequentialism 91 America’s war
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Conservatism 93 private interest,
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Conservative Critique of Libertaria
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Constant, Benjamin (1767-1830) 97 t
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Constitution, U.S. 99 The impetus f
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Constitutionalism 101 constitute a
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Contractarianism/Social Contract 10
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Corruption 105 Hobbes, Thomas. Levi
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Cosmopolitanism 107 Voters are hard
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Culture 109 Hayek, F. A. Law, Legis
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D DECENTRALISM “Small is beautifu
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Declaration of Independence 113 com
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Declaration of the Rights of Man an
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Delegation 117 The Declaration conc
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Democracy 119 Minorities also pose
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Development, Economic 121 economics
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Dicey, Albert Venn (1835-1922) 123
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Division of Labor 125 Diderot’s w
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Douglass, Frederick (1818-1895) 127
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Dunoyer, Charles (1786-1862) 129 im
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Dutch Republic 131 forbidden litera
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134 Economics, Austrian School of w
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136 Economics, Chicago School of an
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138 Economics, Keynesian the second
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140 Education revenue. Keynesian ta
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142 Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882
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144 English Civil Wars force the tr
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146 Enlightenment whereby Presbyter
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148 Entrepreneurship Science, when
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150 Environment contracting with ou
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152 Environment Although the common
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154 Equality Epstein’s work on em
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156 Euthanasia Vonnegut, Kurt. “H
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158 Evolutionary Psychology a patie
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160 Evolutionary Psychology have di
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162 Externalities of self-creation
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F FAMILY The social institution of
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Fascism 167 The problem with this t
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Federalism 169 of liberty and repub
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Federalists Versus Anti-Federalists
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Feminism and Women’s Rights 173 i
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Feminism and Women’s Rights 175 S
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Foreign Policy 177 social instituti
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Foreign Policy 179 government, and
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Freedom 181 Further Readings Burche
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Freedom of Speech 183 16th century,
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Freedom of Thought 185 observation
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Free-Market Economy 187 This concer
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Free Trade 189 occur daily in marke
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French Revolution 191 average tarif
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French Revolution 193 Revolution th
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Friedman, Milton (1912-2006) 195 an
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Fusionism 197 or greatly qualified
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Fusionism 199 Kirk, Russell. The Es
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202 Gambling displacing—even cann
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204 Genetics The crusading editor,
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206 Gladstone, William Ewart (1809-
Page 247 and 248: 208 Glorious Revolution Today, abou
Page 249 and 250: 210 Glorious Revolution Walters; an
Page 251 and 252: 212 Government should have been sur
Page 253 and 254: 214 Great Depression GREAT DEPRESSI
Page 255 and 256: 216 Great Depression abandoned the
Page 257 and 258: 218 Hayek, Friedrich A. (1899-1992)
Page 259 and 260: 220 Hazlitt, Henry (1894-1973) See
Page 261 and 262: 222 Health Care diseases and punish
Page 263 and 264: 224 Herbert, Auberon (1838-1906) co
Page 265 and 266: 226 Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1676) Afte
Page 267 and 268: 228 Hospers, John (1918- ) historia
Page 269 and 270: 230 Hume, David (1711-1776) Prussia
Page 271 and 272: 232 Hutcheson, Francis (1694-1746)
Page 273 and 274: 234 Illicit Drugs contains a sectio
Page 275 and 276: 236 Immigration national-origins qu
Page 277 and 278: 238 Imperialism the people who live
Page 279 and 280: 240 Individualism, Methodological a
Page 281 and 282: 242 Individualism, Political and Et
Page 283 and 284: 244 Individual Rights of goods and
Page 285 and 286: 246 Individual Rights General right
Page 287 and 288: 248 Industrial Revolution The class
Page 289 and 290: 250 Internet is a universal, existi
Page 291 and 292: 252 Internet information that is av
Page 293 and 294: 254 Interventionism intervention ma
Page 295 and 296: 256 Islam a coherent system at all)
Page 297: 258 Italian Fiscal Theorists verses
Page 301 and 302: 262 Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826) F
Page 303 and 304: 264 Jouvenel, Bertrand de (1903-198
Page 305 and 306: 266 Judiciary have argued that the
Page 308 and 309: K KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804) Immanu
Page 310 and 311: Kirzner, Israel M. (1930- ) 271 tha
Page 312 and 313: Kleptocracy 273 and turn to differe
Page 314: Knight, Frank H. (1885-1972) 275 Fu
Page 317 and 318: 278 Labor Unions LABOR UNIONS The l
Page 319 and 320: 280 Laissez-Faire Policy commonly a
Page 321 and 322: 282 Lao Tzu (c. 600 B.C.) she was a
Page 323 and 324: 284 Law and Economics Spaniards liv
Page 325 and 326: 286 Law Merchant See also Coase, Ro
Page 327 and 328: 288 Left Libertarianism From 1965 t
Page 329 and 330: 290 Levellers intervention was a me
Page 331 and 332: 292 Liability as unjust and slander
Page 333 and 334: 294 Liberal Critique of Libertarian
Page 335 and 336: 296 Liberalism, Classical condition
Page 337 and 338: 298 Liberalism, German The growth o
Page 339 and 340: 300 Liberty in the Ancient World It
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Page 343 and 344: 304 Limited Government Europe durin
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M MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON (1800-
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Madison, James (1750-1836) 311 Kell
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Magna Carta 313 MAGNA CARTA Magna C
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Market Failure 315 Mandeville had g
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Marriage 317 a public good, but thi
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Marxism 319 both his social theorie
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Material Progress 321 See also Coll
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Material Progress 323 • soft and
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Menger, Carl (1840-1921) 325 in a t
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Mercantilism 327 They therefore att
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Mill, John Stuart (1806-1873) 329 w
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Milton, John (1608-1674) 331 that t
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Minimal State 333 same as that of m
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Mises, Ludwig von (1881-1972) 335 R
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Molinari, Gustave de (1819-1912) 33
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Montaigne, Michel de (1533-1592) 33
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Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat de
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Mont Pelerin Society 343 continue t
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Murray, Charles (1943- ) 345 unable
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348 Nationalism during the modern e
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350 Natural Harmony of Interests em
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352 Natural Law upright men in vain
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354 New Deal New Deal critics compl
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356 Nock, Albert Jay (1870-1945) th
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358 Nonaggression Axiom freedom to
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360 Nozick, Robert (1938-2002) and
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362 Nozick, Robert (1938-2002) egal
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364 Oppenheimer, Franz (1864-1943)
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366 Orwell, George (1903-1950) any
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368 Ostrom, Vincent and Elinor (191
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370 Paternalism goods “cannot be
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372 Paterson, Isabel (1886-1961) ca
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374 Peace and Pacifism liberalism,
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376 Philosophic Radicals Wilson adm
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378 Physiocracy In the third volume
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380 Popper, Karl (1902-1994) groups
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382 Pornography constitution and to
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384 Positive Liberty (i.e., that vi
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386 Pound, Roscoe (1870-1964) in th
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388 Price, Richard (1723-1791) form
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390 Privacy Although the precise pr
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392 Privacy data-protection laws. S
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394 Privatization report that elect
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396 Progress Spain and Portugal, an
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398 Progressive Era Although many l
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400 Prohibition of Alcohol a single
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402 Psychiatry individualist anarch
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404 Psychiatry are no bodily signs
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406 Public Choice Economics voters
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408 Pursuit of Happiness While pres
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410 Pursuit of Happiness See also C
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412 Rand, Ayn (1905-1982) Douglass
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414 Rand, Ayn (1905-1982) integrate
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416 Read, Leonard E. (1898-1983) wi
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418 Regulation maintained correspon
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420 Religion and Liberty but perfor
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422 Rent Seeking in one’s conscie
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424 Republicanism, Classical preser
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426 Responsibility paternalistic la
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428 Restitution for Crime Pollock a
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430 Retribution for Crime fundament
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432 Revolution, Right of assaults o
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434 Rights, Natural See also Classi
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436 Rights, Theories of another as
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438 Right to Bear Arms profoundly s
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440 Röpke, Wilhelm (1899-1966) Sup
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442 Rothbard, Murray (1926-1995) 19
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444 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712-17
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446 Rule of Law The features of the
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S SAY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (1767-1832) Je
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Scholastics/School of Salamanca 451
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Schumpeter, Joseph (1883-1950) 453
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Secessionism 455 ———. The The
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Senior, Nassau William (1790-1864)
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Separation of Church and State 459
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Sexuality 461 SEXUALITY Combining p
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Simon, Julian (1932-1998) 463 Sidne
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Slavery, World 465 radically denied
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Slavery, World 467 the slaveholders
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Slavery in America 469 Further Read
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Smith, Adam (1723-1790) 471 follow
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Social Darwinism 473 Although both
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Socialism 475 and capital goods nee
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Socialist Calculation Debate 477 Ma
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Social Security 479 Further Reading
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Sociology and Libertarianism 481 so
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Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903) 483 qu
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Spontaneous Order 485 ———.
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Spontaneous Order 487 people are pe
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Spooner, Lysander (1808-1887) 489 U
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State 491 Libertarian literature is
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Stirner, Max (1806-1856) 493 microe
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Subsidiarity 495 habituated to the
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Szasz, Thomas (1920- ) 497 a keen s
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T TAFT, ROBERT A. (1889-1953) Rober
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Tax Competition 501 are politically
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Tax Competition 503 and purposes, A
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Term Limits 505 Behind the argument
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Tocqueville, Alexis de (1805-1859)
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Tracy, Destutt de (1754-1836) 509 F
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Transportation 511 and, in some cou
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Tucker, Benjamin R. (1854-1939) 513
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Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques (1727-1
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U URBAN PLANNING The term urban pla
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Utilitarianism 519 means incompatib
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522 Virtue Similarly, a culture of
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524 Voluntarism Further Readings Al
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526 Voluntary Contract Enforcement
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W WAR War is the quintessential und
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War on Terror 531 Ebeling, Richard
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War Powers 533 disruptive. For exam
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Washington, George (1732-1799) 535
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Wealth and Poverty 537 Emanuel Swed
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Wealth and Poverty 539 create more
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Welfare State 541 all government so
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Wicksell, Knut (1851-1926) 543 also
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Wollstonecraft, Mary (1759-1797) 54
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Index Entry titles and their page n
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Index 549 Henry David Thoreau and,
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Index 551 interdisciplinary influen
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Index 553 Brough, William, 338 Brou
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Index 555 Lockhart v. McCree and, 5
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Index 557 privatization and, 394-39
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Index 559 communist regimes and lon
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Index 561 Charles de Secondat de Mo
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Index 563 Bill of Rights (U.S.) and
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Index 565 Thomas Szasz and, 497-498
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Index 567 Encyclopedia, or Reasoned
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Index 569 Standard Social Sciences
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Index 571 “no law” provision of
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Index 573 resistance to, 190 David
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Index 575 poor countries growth and
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Index 577 Antony Fisher and, 177 Mi
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Index 579 Humanism, 228-229 atheism
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Index 581 Individual rights, 244-24
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Index 583 embargo policy of, 263 Ep
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Index 585 monopoly bargaining privi
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Index 587 redistributive taxation a
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Index 589 J. S. Mill and, 305 minim
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Index 591 family status to social c
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Index 593 war finance and, 327 worl
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Index 595 Murray Rothbard and, 339
Page 636 and 637:
Index 597 liberty and progress term
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Index 599 Our Enemy, the State (Noc
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Index 601 Lady Chatterly’s Lover
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Index 603 black markets and, 36 Bur
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Index 605 equal liberty principle o
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Index 607 Second Treatise of Govern
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Index 609 positive liberty and coll
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Index 611 core aspect of human pers
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Index 613 definition of, 474 Enligh
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Index 615 individualist anarchism o
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Index 617 redistributive taxation (
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Index 619 Uhler, Lew, 505 The Ultim
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Index 621 foreign policy (U.S.) and
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Index 623 Historical and Moral View
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