Reproduction in Domestic Animals

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164 J de Gier, NJ Beijerink, HS Kooistra and AC OkkensVickery BH, McRae GI, Goodpasture JC, Sanders LM, 1989:Use of potent LHRH analogues for chronic contraceptionand pregnancy termination in dogs. J Reprod Fertil Suppl39, 175–187.Vizcarra JA, Wettemann RP, Braden TD, Turzillo AM, NettTM, 1997: Effect of gonadotropin-releasing hormone(GnRH) pulse frequency on serum and pituitaryconcentrations of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulatinghormone, GnRH receptors, and messenger ribonucleicacid for gonadotropin subunits in cows. Endocrinology 138,594–601.Wright PJ, Verstegen JP, Onclin K, Jo¨ chle W, Armour AF,Martin GB, Trigg TE, 2001: Supression of the oestrusresponses in bitches to the GnRH analogue deslorelin byprogestin. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 57, 263–268.Yazigi RA, Wuintero CH, Salameh WA1997: Prolactindisorders. Fertil Steril 67, 215–225.Yu WH, Karanth S, Walczewska A, Sower SA, McCann SM,1997: A hypothalamic follicle-stimulating hormone-releasingdecapeptide in the rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci 94,9499–9503.Author’s address (for correspondence): Auke C. Okkens, Departmentof Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Faculty of VeterinaryMedicine, University of Utrecht, Yalelaan, Utrecht, The Netherlands.E-mail: a.c.schaefers-okkens@uu.nlConflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interests.Ó 2008 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2008 Blackwell Verlag
Reprod Dom Anim 43 (Suppl. 2), 165–171 (2008); doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0531.2008.01157.xISSN 0936-6768The Ethics and Role of AI with Fresh and Frozen Semen in DogsGCW England 1 and KM Millar 21 School of Veterinary Medicine and Science; 2 Centre for Applied Bioethics, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UKContentsThe use of artificial insemination (AI) with fresh semen hasresulted in many benefits for the management of dog breeding,but there are disadvantages that can sometimes be overlooked.Furthermore, poorer quality semen arising as a result ofcryopreservation necessitates uterine insemination, whichraises the potential for surgical insemination. A number ofsignificant ethical concerns have been raised by key stakeholders(such as The Kennel Club and the Royal College ofVeterinary Surgeons) about AI per se, but particularly aboutthe use of surgical insemination. This paper discusses thetechnological development of AI and explores a number of theethical issues raised by its application to dog breeding. AnEthical Matrix method is used to map the potential ethicalissues for key interest groups, namely dogs, breeders, owners,veterinarians and wider society. There are national variationsin the way in which institutions have evaluated potentialethical impacts, and this is reflected in the different regulatoryframeworks governing the use of AI in dogs. In order tofacilitate decision-making and reduce some of the ethical risksassociated with this technology, the veterinary research communitycould take several proactive steps including: (i)clarifying clinical decision-making processes, (ii) enhancinginformed choice among clients and (iii) increasing the knowledge-baseof potential impacts of AI.IntroductionArtificial insemination (AI) is the process of placingsemen into the female reproductive tract without anatural mating. AI has become popular as a result ofthe importing and exporting of frozen dog semen,however, semen can be inseminated fresh, or cooled andstored for a few days prior to insemination, or frozenand stored indefinitely before being thawed prior to use.The first specific report of mammalian AI was in a dogin the 1700s, and the first AI following storage of dogsemen was reported in the 1950s. In the ensuing50 years, there have been huge developments in reproductivebiology and biotechnology enabling the use,and potential misuse, of AI. There are national variationsin the ethical and legislative frameworks governingthe use of AI in dogs, and the purpose of this paperis to review the techniques and consider some of thepotential ethical questions posed by increasing use ofAI in this species.Role of Artificial Insemination in DogsAdvantages and disadvantages of AIThere is no doubt that AI with fresh semen has anumber of potential advantages in the management ofbreeding in dogs including that it: (i) may allow the useof males or females that are unable to breed because ofanatomical or pathological reasons, (ii) may overcomerefusal to breed because of psychological reasons, (iii)may allow the splitting of an ejaculate so that morefemales can be bred, (iv) is an acceptable method of linebreeding, (v) can be highly efficient at facilitating geneticimprovement, (vi) may allow the control of someinfectious diseases either by removing physicalcontact between animals or by allowing treatment ofsemen prior to insemination, (vii) enables examinationof semen quality prior to insemination and if necessarythe selection of an alternative stud, (viii) can be aconvenient and rapid method of breeding, and (ix) bycryopreservation enables conservation and storage ofvaluable genes from male animals almost indefinitely.When combined with semen preservation, there areadditional potential advantages including; (i) makingshipping of semen possible such that genetic material isavailable from outside of a breeding colony, (ii) overcomingquarantine restrictions, (iii) overcoming theneed to transport the animal (reducing transportationstress ⁄ disease risks), and (iv) the ability to utilize semenafter death of the male. For breeders producing dogs forprofessional purposes, such as bomb ⁄ mine detectiondogs, drug detection dogs and guide dogs for the blind,etc., semen freezing can enable castration of males at anearly age but maintaining availability of their geneswhile their performance can be evaluated. The need tokeep males in the breeding kennels is also reduced,which will reduce costs.Despite these clear benefits, the possible veterinarydisadvantages are often overlooked. These can include;(i) causing physical or psychological trauma during theAI process, (ii) undertaking AI for inappropriatereasons (e.g. where reluctance to breed is a manifestationof underlying hereditary disease such as hipdysplasia or anatomical abnormality of the reproductivetract), (iii) potential for introduction of heritablediseases or abnormalities, (iv) potentially allowingoveruse of a male within a programme or breed, and(v) possibly allowing confusion of parentage (for reviewsee Linde-Forsberg 2002). In all the cases, it would beprudent to ensure a controlled and certified processinvolving clinical and ⁄ or molecular examination ofmales to ensure that they do no spread genetic orinfectious disease.Technique of inseminationAt the time of natural mating, semen is deposited withinthe vagina but sperm are transported into the uterusbecause of significant vaginal and active uterine contractions(Evans 1933). While vaginal insemination[AI(V)] is a simple procedure that is well tolerated inthe bitch (Seager et al. 1975), vaginal contractions areÓ 2008 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2008 Blackwell Verlag
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Reproductionin Domestic AnimalsTabl
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Embryo Biotechnologies in Farm Anim
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Ethical Models for Studying Reprodu
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Dietary Pollutants as Risk Factors
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Factors Influencing Reproduction in
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GH and IGF-I in Cattle and Pigs 35h
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GH and IGF-I in Cattle and Pigs 37B
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GH and IGF-I in Cattle and Pigs 39R
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Seasonality of Reproduction in Mamm
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Dominant Follicle Selection in Cows
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Regulation of Luteal Function 59and
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Regulation of Luteal Function 61bov
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Regulation of Luteal Function 63(+/
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Regulation of Luteal Function 65sys
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Captive Breeding of Cheetahs in Sou
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Non-invasive Monitoring of Hormones
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Biotechnology Methods for Preservin
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Biotechnology Methods for Preservin
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Genetic Improvement of Dairy Cow Re
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Nutrient Prioritization and Fertili
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Mother-Offspring Interactions 215an
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Reproduction Augmentation in Yak an
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Follicles and Mares 2251982). Simil
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Follicles and Mares 227Studies invo
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Follicles and Mares 229dominant fol
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Follicles and Mares 231trus, spring
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Proteins in Early Equine Conceptuse
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Fertilization in the Porcine Fallop
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Lactocrine Programming of Uterine D
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278 FF Bartol, AA Wiley and CA Bagn
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282 KC Caires, JA Schmidt, AP Olive
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290 I Dobrinskisuccessful also betw
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292 I DobrinskiCreemers LB, Meng X,
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340 D Rath and LA JohnsonCommercial
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342 D Rath and LA JohnsonThe Commer
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344 D Rath and LA JohnsonX- and Y-b
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346 D Rath and LA JohnsonWalker SK,
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376 GC AlthouseTable 1. Potential s
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378 GC Althousesemen to the domesti
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380 B Leboeuf, JA Delgadillo, E Man
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388 N Kostereva and M-C HofmannFig.
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402 K Kikuchi, N Kashiwazaki, T Nag
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408 B ObackNumber of publications20
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410 B ObackReprogramming Ability of
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412 B Obackstudies have shown that
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