Reproduction in Domestic Animals

The Ethics and Role of AI in Dogs 169progression for an industry that is developing within amarket economy.Owners (recipients of pups)Safety and quality of life (OW)Using AI may reduce the risk of disease transmissionthat will not only benefit the dog but could also havepotentially positive impacts on the puppies’ owner(s).Use of AI may ensure a high-quality supply of pupsand allow owners to receive a pup on demand, ratherthan being affected by breeding difficulties. However,AI use with problem dogs (male and female) mayresult in progeny that are unsuitable as companionanimals (e.g. behavioural problems) or which will notreproduce themselves without intervention (e.g. anatomicalor physiological limitations). The overuse ofmales through AI may also facilitate the incorporationof undesirable traits within a line that are notapparent until later generations. Any form of ARTuse may be seen by some to infringe the dog–ownerrelationship. The risks to animal welfare associatedwith the use of AI and the perceived view of theunnaturalness of the process may be seen to have anegative impact on the companion animal–humanrelationship and, hence, infringe the wellbeing of theowner.Choice (OA)In order to respect the principle of autonomy forpotential owners, it is important that all techniquesand procedures applied to produce pups are disclosed.This will allow owners to make an informed decisionabout whether they want a pup that has beenconceived using AI, particularly AI(S); as this maybe an important differentiation for some owners.Potential owners should also be privy to the justificationfor using AI, i.e. such as for behavioural oranatomical reasons. In order to respect the autonomyof potential owners, this information should be loggedin the breeding record and should be offered (i.e. thisis a positive duty) to owners rather than being madeavailable on request. The use of AI may compromisethe reliability of the parentage information as semenmay be ‘mixed’ or the origin may be difficult to verify.However, this risk could be managed through currentsystems such as breeder certification and veterinarysupervision of AI (e.g. the use of stud books andmandatory DNA sampling at the time of semencollection etc.).Affordability of products (OF)Recently, the International Association of Human-Animal Interaction Organizations declared that ‘it is auniversal, natural and basic human right to benefit fromthe presence of animals’. The introduction of AI technologiescould result in a number of specialized breedsbeing prohibitively expensive for some members ofsociety. If that was the case, an increase in the use of thistechnology within the dog-breeding community may beseen as an infringement, and therefore, unfair to someeconomically disadvantaged members of the dog-owningcommunity.VeterinariansSatisfactory income and working conditions (VW)Unlike human health professionals where services aresupported via public funding, veterinarians operate in amarket environment where the quality and diversity oftheir services influence their income streams. Veterinarianswho invest in new skills and are able to offeradditional services can enhance the profitability of theirpractice and their personal income. In a marketenvironment, this can result in a competitive advantageover rival practices. The ability to respond to clients’needs and offer new services, such as AI, enhances(respects) veterinarians’ wellbeing.Professional freedom (VA)Freedom to innovate is an important driver of change inmany fields and this is no less the case for the veterinaryprofession. By developing and applying new diagnosticmethods, surgical techniques and veterinary products,veterinarians have improved the wellbeing of theirpatients as well as their clients (e.g. dog owners). Theopportunity to use AI allows veterinarians to determinethe best course of treatment for their patients sorespecting their professional autonomy, particularly ifthe cause of the bitches’ infertility is a barrier that canonly be overcome by AI. Artificial insemination mayprovide the only option for treating dogs that arecompromised because of anatomical, physiological orbehavioural problems.Equitable standards of practice (VF)It may be claimed that the availability of noveltechnologies, which are cost-effective but perhaps poserisks for animal welfare (e.g. surgical risks), couldunduly influence the market and decrease the use ofother non-invasive techniques that may require additionalskills or be more time-demanding. In order toensure the principle of justice is not infringed, adequateinformation would need to be provided to breeders andowners on the options for treatment. This could includeadvising against the use of an intervention method orpossibly even advising against breeding from a particulardog. In addition, when considering the use of thedifferent AI methods, the risks of each technique shouldbe clearly stated and, if necessary, referral to otherqualified veterinarians should be offered. This wouldensure that trading and professional standards were notunduly influenced by lack of transparency in the market.SocietySafety and social harmony (SW)The routine use of reproductive technologies may affectthe human–dog relationship by increasing society’sinstrumental view of companion animals. However,the clinical ability to intervene and facilitate a successfulpregnancy may further enhance the positive nature ofÓ 2008 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2008 Blackwell Verlag