Beate Dignas & Engelbert Winter - Kaveh Farrokh

12 1 To the beginning of the third century
Since 64 bc, when Pompey had established the province of Syria, 7 Rome
had been the immediate neighbour of the Parthian kingdom. But already
before that official contacts existed; in 96 bc Sulla received the Parthian
ambassador Orobazos on the western banks of the river Euphrates. As
Roman power was increasing dramatically in the East, the Parthians sought
peaceful relations and wanted to come to a settlement that guaranteed
mutual respect. During the meeting, the two empires established amicitia
between them. 8 Plutarch’s account of the protocol is revealing. 9 Sulla sat
in the centre and presided over the proceedings. He obviously claimed
an exceptional role. Also present was the Cappadocian king Ariobarzanes,
a man who favoured and was dependent on Rome and who – just like
Orobazos – sat next to Sulla. It becomes clear that the Parthian ambassador
was placed on the same level with him and the Parthian kingdom thus
viewed as a second-rank power. It was probably for good reasons that
Orobazos was executed after his return. 10
Roman foreign policy in the following years confirmed Western feelings
of superiority. Although in 69 and 66 bc a foedus was concluded with the
Parthians, which saw the Euphrates as the Western frontier of the Parthian
kingdom, Roman diplomatic activities reflect strategic interests rather than
the effort to come to a settlement with an equal partner. After the foedus of
66 bc had been concluded, Pompey’s behaviour made it clear that Rome was
not going to tolerate any rival. 11 When Roman soldiers broke the agreement
and crossed the Euphrates, the Parthian king Phraates III warned Pompey
to respect the river as the boundary but the latter declared that he would
give way to military force only. 12 Rome did not feel obliged to comply
with legal norms but was convinced of its political, military and cultural
superiority over the East.
When Crassus launched another attack on Mesopotamia in 54 bc, the
Parthian kingdom was well prepared. In 53 bc Rome suffered a major defeat
at Carrhae. The Roman standards fell into Parthian hands and Crassus was
killed. 13 The outcome of this battle is significant for subsequent Roman–
Parthian relations because it influenced Rome’s policy in the East considerably.
Whereas the Romans had treated the Parthians with arrogance before,
after the defeat they reversed their attitude and rather overestimated the
opponent’s military force; Rome sought revenge. 14
7 On Pompey’s settlement see Freeman 1994: 143–70; on Syria in general see Kennedy 1996b: 703–36.
8 Sherwin-White 1977: 173–83; Keaveney 1981: 196–212.
9 Plut. Sull. 5.4–5.
10 Karras-Klapproth 1988: 101–2.
11 Keaveney 1982: 412–28; Hillman 1996: 380–99.
12 Cass. Dio xxxvii.6.1–2.
13 Plut. Crass. 18–33; Cass. Dio xl.16–27; Marshall 1976; Shahbazi 1992: 9–13; Tucci 1992.
14 Timpe 1962: 104–29.